
!); \; 



■a HISTORY OF o£ | 

HE UNITED STA™* 1 








Class 

Book 

Copyright^ . 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSfT 



A HISTORY OF 
THE UNITED STATES 



•The^X^ 



A HISTORY OF 



THE UNITED STATES 



BY 



WILLIAM C. DOUB 

EX-SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS FOR KERN COUNTY, CALIFORNIA 

AUTHOR OF " EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS," " TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 

GEOGRAPHY," "TEACHERS' MANUAL AND COURSE OF STUDY 

IN HISTORY AND CIVICS," " PUPIL'S OUTLINE OF 

AMERICAN HISTORY," ETC. 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., Ltd. 
1905 

All rights reserved 



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UBBAHVoT ^OMGHtSS 
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jun 19 »yw> 

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COPY 8. 



Copyright, 1905, 
By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. 



Set up and electrotyped. Published June, 1905. 



Norton 06 $rrss 

J. S. Cushing & Co. — Uerwick & Smith Co. 

Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 



PREFACE 

During recent years there has been much written and 
much said about making the study of history and civics in 
the elementary schools something more than committing 
to memory dates, facts, and events. Many newspapers 
and educational journals and many of those educators who 
talk publicly on school questions have criticised severely 
the results secured from the time devoted to history and 
civics in the grammar schools. The method used and the 
lack of proper preparation on the part of the teacher have 
been held responsible for the poor results secured in these 
subjects. It has been customary to hold the teacher re- 
sponsible for the method used and for her poor prepara- 
tion, and thus to place the entire blame on her. Many 
have promptly and justly replied that they cannot be 
expected to expend from two to three thousand dollars in 
securing a higher education for the purpose of receiving 
the small salaries paid in the elementary schools. They 
have also replied — and this is even more to the point — 
that not being specialists in history and civics, they can- 
not, with any degree of success, teach these subjects by 
the topical method when every grammar school history 
text-book in print adopts, almost entirely, the cut-and- 
dried chronological-event method. In relation to all these 
conditions, special attention is called to the fact that in 
this book the topical treatment is used without any reserve 
whatever. No teacher can use this book as a text-book 



vi Preface 

and use any other than the topical method, and no pupil 
can study this book without becoming interested in the 
real spirit of our history. (See Explanatory and Sug- 
gestive, page ix.) 

The use of this volume as a regular text makes a sepa- 
rate study of civics and the use of a separate book on 
civics entirely unnecessary, in fact, undesirable. This is 
due to the fullness and to the nature of the treatment 
which the subject of government has received. It is 
deemed best, at least so far as the elementary schools are 
concerned, to consider history and civics one subject, and 
to teach them as such. This method will tend to give the 
pupil some conception of the real nature of government 
and of his relation to the same. Hcwill not look upon 
civil government as an indistinct and lifeless structure, 
because he is being led to see the true relation which 
exists between history and civics, — led to see that govern- 
ment is the enactment of the experience of society into 
law, and that history is the record of that experience. He 
will see that all the more important parts of governmental 
machinery, such as the division of government into the 
three departments and the division of the legislative de- 
partment into two houses, are merely the crystallization of 
ideas which society has gradually developed. The treat- 
ment in this volume makes government so completely an 
integral part of the history of the nation that the pupil 
will readily see and understand this vital relationship. 
This will give him a much better and more valuable 
knowledge of government and of his relation to the same 
than he would receive from a separate study of this 
subject. 

Some of the conclusions reached in this volume do not 
agree with those reached by many who have discussed 



Preface vii 

American history. It may be proper to state in this con- 
nection that this volume was in definite course of prepara- 
tion for more than six years, and that during this time 
nearly all the more valuable sources bearing on the sub- 
jects discussed were gone over carefully. Any criticism 
of the more important conclusions herein reached becomes, 
therefore, a question as to the correct interpretation of the 
sources. In connection with this last statement it is but 
just to say, that if this volume contains anything of un- 
usual merit and interest for the student, for the teacher, 
or for the general reader, it is due in no small measure 
to Professor George Elliott Howard. While Dr. Howard 
had nothing to do in the direct preparation of this volume, 
it was while a member of his classes at Stanford Univer- 
sity that I caught something of his inspiration for candid, 
logical, and devoted research that made the preparation 
of this work by me possible. 



WILLIAM C. DOUB. 



San Francisco, California, 
January, 1905. 



" It is a product of the general feeling among pro- 
gressive educators that history should cease to be a mere 
exercise in memory gymnastics, and become a genuine 
study of human life and experience. In the grammar 
school, as well as in the high school or the university, 
history should be so presented that man is ever seen to 
be its real object. It should never for a single moment 
be lost sight of that, while the right study of history 
affords a training for the reason and the judgment scarcely 
rivaled by that gained from any other source, yet the chief 
subject-matter is man in his political and other social rela- 
tions. It is the things which are really important in 
human progress, in the struggle for existence, that one 
wishes to know. Lists of dates and genealogical tables 
of royal or noble personages are not so helpful to the 
youth preparing himself for citizenship as a knowledge 
of the institutions of his country and state, or even of his 
county, village, or school district." 

— From Dr. George Elliott Howard's introductory note to Doub's 
"Topical Discussion of American History" (first edition). 



EXPLANATORY AND SUGGESTIVE 

Method of Treatment. — The discussions in this book are 
more mature and give deeper insight into the real growth 
and development of American history than do the discus- 
sions in any other grammar school histories. In spite of 
this maturity of treatment, teachers and pupils have found 
this work unusually easy to accomplish. This is due to the 
method of treatment and to the nature of the subject-matter. 
The history of the United States is divided into its natural 
periods, and the discussion of every topic in each period is 
continuous and complete. This division and this method 
make possible a treatment that is continuous, logical, sim- 
ple, clear, and interesting. The work in history ceases to 
consist of memorizing dates, facts, and events, and becomes 
a study of the real life and growth of the nation by becom- 
ing a direct study of cause and effect. This makes the 
study of history easy, interesting, and valuable. The divi- 
sion of the nation's history into periods, the division of 
each period into topics, and the continuous discussion of 
each topic give the pupil a much more valuable idea 
of time relation than does the chronological method of 
treatment. No part of this method still remains an ex- 
periment. During the past six years the topics and ques- 
tions in this book have been carefully developed and worked 
out in the schools of California. These topics and ques- 
tions in definite and workable form are used as the regular 
official course in history and civics by more than half the 
pupils in the seventh and eighth grades of the public ele- 



x Explanatory and Suggestive 

mentary schools of that state. The value of the work in 
history and civics in the schools using these topics and ques- 
tions and this method of work has increased more than a 
hundred per cent. 

Questions and Topics. — The nature of a pupil's work on 
a subject will soon be determined by the questions asked 
him during the recitation and during the special and general 
reviews. Only questions bringing out the more important 
features of the topic, and directly aiding a logical develop- 
ment of the subject, should be asked. The preparation of 
such questions requires much time and a great deal of hard 
work. In order to assist the teacher in this important and 
difficult matter, questions have been prepared for class reci- 
tations, for the review of each topic, and for the general re- 
view of the year's work. Closely related to this subject of 
questions is another matter that is of great importance in 
elementary education. The school work on most subjects 
is injured because teachers do not have a definite idea as to 
the nature of the work that boards of education and super- 
intendents desire. If the examinations for promotion and 
graduation are not entirely in the hands of the teacher, 
this lack of a definite idea as to the nature of the work 
required becomes of still more importance. Teachers have 
learned by experience that many of the questions asked 
are purely memory questions and have very little relation 
to good, thorough work. This frequently leads them to 
prepare pupils for such examinations, which is worse than 
a waste of time. It is strongly urged, therefore, that 
where a teacher has not entire charge of the examinations, 
she and her pupils be given to understand distinctly that 
all the examination questions for promotion and graduation 
will be selected from those found in this book, and that 
the eighth-grade examinations will not include any of the 



Explanatory and Suggestive xi 

seventh-grade questions. If the teacher has entire charge 
of the examinations, she and her pupils should understand 
distinctly that the work required, both as to nature and 
scope, is that indicated by the questions in this book, and 
that nothing less than the careful working out of these 
questions will be accepted. This method will secure the 
concentration of the teacher's and pupil's time on the 
essential features of American history, and will secure a 
logical development of the subject. Most of the questions 
are thought questions, and if the pupil can give a good 
discussion of each, he will have secured much value from 
his work in history and civics. 

No one feature of this book has more to do with making 
it valuable and workable than the questions which it con- 
tains, and the preparation of no other feature has received 
more careful attention. These questions, as stated above, 
have been thoroughly tested in actual class work. They 
consist of three general classes, — Questions for Class 
Recitations, Questions for Compositions and Examinations, 
and Subjects for Special Study and General Review. The 
Subjects for Special Study and General Review are placed 
at the end of the seventh-grade work and at the end of 
the eighth-grade work. They should constitute the general 
review in history and civics for each of these grades. The 
pupil should have ample time for the study of these review- 
subjects, and when engaged in preparing his written dis- 
cussions of the same he should be permitted free access 
to this book and to other available material. The Ques- 
tions for Compositions and Examinations are usually placed 
at the end of the main subtopics. The preparation of the 
answers to these questions should constitute the review of 
those topics, but in addition to the use of this group of 
questions for purposes of regular or formal reviews they 



xii Explanatory and Suggestive 

should be studied thoroughly as soon as they are reached, 
and be made the basis of recitations the same as are the 
regular class-recitation questions. The examination ques- 
tions for promotion and graduation should be taken, as a 
rule, from this group of questions. The Questions for 
Class Recitations are for the daily recitations. Experi- 
ence has shown that usually they are ample for this pur- 
pose, but of course the discussions during the recitation 
will frequently call for additional questions. 

Government and the Other Four Institutions. — The use 
of this volume as a text-book makes a separate study of 
civil government and the use of a separate text-book on 
civics entirely unnecessary. The treatment of govern- 
ment is ample for all elementary school purposes. This 
subject is made a real part of the history work. This is 
of much value to the grammar school pupil, because it 
enables him to see the close relation which exists between 
history and government, and thus gives him a much better 
preparation for the actual duties of citizenship than he 
could receive from a separate study of civics. Through- 
out the entire book, the principles, the growth, and the 
formal side of government have been most carefully de- 
veloped. The study of this volume, therefore, in addition 
to giving the pupil a knowledge of the formal organization 
of government, will enable him to understand the growth 
and the value of the principles of government. In this 
connection constant regard has been had to leading the 
pupil to see clearly the duties of citizenship, and thus 
to enable the public school system to accomplish its most 
important function, — the making of good, efficient citizens. 

The other four institutions — business, or industrial 
conditions ; society, or social conditions ; the church, or 
religion ; and the school, or education — have received as 



Explanatory and Suggestive xiii 

careful treatment as has the institution of government. 
The careful consideration given the five institutions is one 
of the most valuable as well as the most unique features 
of this book. If the study of political science in the ele- 
mentary schools should be one thing more than another, it 
should be a study of the real life, feelings, and aspirations 
of the people. Too long have teachers and pupils been 
compelled to feed on the dry husks of history and civics. 

The Recitation. — The success of school work in any 
subject depends largely on the nature of the recitation. 
The first thing necessary to a good recitation is the proper 
assignment of the lesson. It is always valuable to interest 
the pupil in a topic before asking him to begin work on 
the same. This requires a knowledge of the subject on the 
part of the teacher and the time and ability to create that 
interest. While it will be an excellent thing for the teacher 
to do this when assigning the topics in this book, each topic 
has been discussed and developed on the supposition that 
she has not the time for its oral presentation. In order to 
accomplish this important result, great care has been taken 
in the treatment and discussion of each topic. In this 
connection the method of study becomes of the utmost 
importance. The first work on one of the general topics 
should be a very careful study of the outline which pre- 
cedes that topic. When beginning work on one of the 
subtopics of the general topic, or period, the pupil should 
note carefully the relation of this subtopic to the other sub- 
topics of the general topic. It is deemed very important 
that the pupil see clearly the logical relation and connec- 
tion which exists between the subjects studied. After the 
pupil sees this relation clearly, he should read the complete 
discussion of the subtopic, but he should do this reading 
without any thought whatever of preparing for a recitation. 



xiv Explanatory and Suggestive 

The first work on a topic, therefore, should be the careful 
study of its outline, and the reading of the entire discussion 
of that topic. After this has been done, the study of the 
questions should be taken up. The pupil should be given 
to understand distinctly that when the time for the class 
recitation arrives he must be prepared to answer every 
question bearing on the topic assigned for that recitation. 
This will insure the careful reading and study of each topic, 
and will secure the special study of the important features 
of that topic. When reciting the pupil should be required 
to stand and to give a full and complete discussion of the 
question under consideration, and nothing less than a clear 
and logical discussion of a question should ever be ac- 
cepted. This cultivates confidence in the pupil and causes 
him to make ample preparation for the recitation. 

If the suggestions made in the last paragraph be carried 
out, this book will practically teach itself, and with most 
satisfactory results to the pupil. Any additional discus- 
sions which the teacher may give, or may induce pupils 
to give, will make the work just so much more valuable. 

Books. ■ — The topics which have been selected for study 
are given a more complete discussion in this book than in 
any other grammar school history. The discussions con- 
tain ample material for answering all the questions asked. 
While this makes it unnecessary for pupils to use any 
other text as a reference, they should read some material 
that will enable them to understand still more clearly the 
real life and feelings of the people who lived during the dif- 
erent periods of our history. For this purpose there are no 
other books that approach in merit Hart's " Source Read- 
ers in American History." There are four of these read- 
ers, — "Colonial Children," "Camps and Firesides" of the 
Revolution," " How Our Grandfathers Lived," and " Ro- 



Explanatory and Suggestive xv 

mance of the Civil War." The material in each reader con- 
sists entirely of the writings of the men and women who 
lived during the period of which that reader treats. This 
enables the pupil, at least to some extent, to see things and 
to feel about things that took place then, as these men and 
women saw and felt. In order to have the material in these 
readers better suited to grammar school work, the spelling 
and language of some of the selections have been slightly 
changed, but in every case the thought has been retained. 
It is strongly urged that " Colonial Children " and " Camps 
and Firesides of the Revolution " be read in connection 
with the seventh-grade work, and that " How Our Grand- 
fathers Lived " and " Romance of the Civil War " be read 
in connection with the eighth-grade work. It is suggested 
that these four readers be made a part of the subject- 
matter of the regular reading course for these two grades. 
Pupils find these books as interesting as a novel. 

There should be in each library for the use of the teacher 
several more advanced works on American history. The 
teacher should have access to not less than " American 
History told by Contemporaries," by Hart; "History of 
the United States " in the Cambridge Modern History 
Series; and Fiske's "American Revolution," "Old Vir- 
ginia and her Neighbors," and "The Beginnings of New 
England." Many pupils will be interested in these books, 
especially in those by Fiske. The teacher may find 
my "Teacher's Manual and Course of Study in History 
and Civics " of considerable assistance. It is a book of 
about three hundred pages, and contains the same topics 
and questions contained in this book, but the discussions 
of the topics are brief. These brief discussions often 
prove valuable to the busy teacher when preparing for 
the recitation. 



CONTENTS 



Preface 

Explanatory and Suggestive 

Illustrations . 

Maps 



Introductory 

Conditions Favorable to the Discovery of America 

Ancient Ideas of the World . 

False Ideas of the World not due to Lack of Civilization 

Conditions in Ancient Europe hindering Exploration 

Conditions leading to Exploration 
Discoveries and Explorations 

Spanish Discoveries and Explorations 

English Discoveries and Explorations 

French Discoveries and Explorations 

Portuguese Discoveries and Explorations 

Dutch Discoveries and Explorations 
Disposition of Territory in the New World 
Decline of Spanish Power . 

Spain's Early Supremacy on the Sea 

Defeat of the Spanish Armada : Rise 
Power . . 
The American Indian .... 

Origin of the Name 

Classification according to Civilization 

Appearance and Manner of Living 

Character .... 
Questions and Topics . 
The Thirteen Colonies . 

Origin, Growth, and Political History 

The Southern Colonies . • 

The New England Colonies . 

The Middle Colonies 
Questions and Topics . 



of E 



nglish Sea 



IX 

xxiii 



22, 



14 
16 

19 
J 9 
J 9 
21 
21 

3 
24 
24 
24 
27 
28 
29 

33 
33 
36 
50 
78 
90 



XV111 



Contents 



The French in North America 
The Spanish in America 
French Explorations and Settlements 
m Contrast of French and English Colonies as to Purpose 
of Settlement ....... 

Relations of the French with the Indians 

Early Conflicts between the French and the English 

The French and Indian War . .... 

Questions and Topics ...... 

Institutional Life in the Colonies ..... 

Industrial Conditions 
Social Conditions . 
Government . 
Religion 
Education 

Questions and Topics 

Origin of American Institutions 

American Institutions: Changes in and from where derived 
Government in England ...... 

Transfer of English Rights and Institutions to America 
Questions and Topics ...... 

The American Revolution 

Causes and Beginnings ...... 

Causes of the Revolution ..... 

Beginnings of the Revolution .... 

Campaigns . 

Nature and Object of the Three Campaigns planned by 

the British 

The Campaign to separate New England from the Other 
States, and the Campaign against Philadelphia and the 

Middle States 

The Campaign against the Southern States 
The Closing Events of the War . 
Questions and Topics .... 

The Critical Period 

The Nature of the National Government 

The Northwest Territory: The Ordinance of 1787 

Condition of Money, Business, and Commerce 



Contents 



xix 



Anarchy and Rebellion 
The Constitutional Convention 
The Constitution .... 
Organization of the New Government 
Questions and Topics 

National Growth and European Interference 

The Period of European Interference . 

Origin of American Neutrality in European Affairs 
The Jay Treaty ...... 

The Breach with France .... 

The Alien and Sedition Acts 

The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions 

The Purchase of Louisiana .... 

European Interference with American Commerce 
The War of 1812, or the War for Commercial 
pendence ....... 

The Hartford Convention .... 

Purchase of Florida ..... 

The Monroe Doctrine ..... 

End of the Period of European Interference . 

Financial Legislation : The Tariff 
Hamilton's Financial Measures 
Jefferson and Gallatin's Financial Policy 
The National Bank and State Banks 
Tariff Legislation ...... 

Political Parties 

Rise of Political Parties .... 

The Federalist Party : Its Rise and Fall 
The Republican Party : Its Rise and Fall 

Growth of the Nation .... 
Growth in Territory and Population 
Movement of Population : Causes and Direction 
Results of Westward Expansion 
Growth of National Unity 

Institutional Life .... 
Industrial Conditions 
Social Conditions . 
Government .... 



Inde- 



PAGE 

331 
332 
34i 
349 
35i 

354 
359 
359 
362 

364 
367 
369 
37° 
374 

378 
387 
389 
389 
392 
393 
393 
398 

399 
400 
402 

402 
404 
405 
408 
408 
408 
410 

415 

418 
418 

427 
428 



XX 



Contents 



Religion .... 

Education .... 
Questions and Topics . 

Westward Expansion and Slavery 
Political Methods and Political Parties 

The Meaning of Jackson's Election 

Political Methods . 

Political Parties 
Financial Legislation : The Tariff 

The Tariff .... 

Destruction of the National Bank 

The Panic of 1837 

The Independent or Subtreasury System 
Growth of the Nation in Territory and Population 

The Oregon Territory 

Annexation of Texas 

The Mexican War 

Growth in Territory and Population : The Pacific Coas 
The Slavery Question ..... 

Conditions affecting the Growth of Slavery 

Rise of the Abolitionists 

The Gag Resolutions .... 

The Compromise of 1850 

The Kansas-Nebraska Bill and the Dred Scott Decision 

The Lincoln-Douglas Debates : The Election of Lincoln 

Review and Conclusions 
Institutional Life . 

Industrial Conditions 

Social Conditions . 

Government . 

Religion 

Education 

Questions and Topics 

The American Civil War 

Resources of the North and the South 

Commanders, Military Supplies, and Available Soldiers 
Means of Transportation : Financial and Industrial 
Resources ......... 



526 



Contents 



xxi 



Method of Treat 



Secession and Beginnings 

The Right of Secession 

Secession 

The Fall of Fort Sumter 

The Battle of Bull Run 
Campaigns . . 

Introductory . 

Scope and Nature of Campaigns 
ment ..... 

The Eastern Campaign . 

The Western Campaign 

The Campaign of 1864-65 
The Work of the Navy 

Blockade of the Southern Ports 

Commerce Destroyers . 

Revolution in Naval Warfare 
Results ..... 

Questions and Topics . 

Reconstruction, Development, and Expansion 
Reconstruction of the Confederate States 

Relation of the Confederate States to the National 
ernment ....... 

The Death of Lincoln : His Character and Ability 

The Reconstruction Policy of Johnson . 

The Reconstruction Policy of Congress 

Some Results of Reconstruction 
Political Methods and Political Parties 

Political Methods . ■ . 

Political Parties 
Financial and Industrial Legislation 

Financial Legislation 

Tariff Legislation . 

Industrial Combinations 
Foreign Relations 

Purchase of Alaska 

Treaty of Washington . 

Application of the Monroe Doctrin 

Growth of Arbitration . 



Gov 



529 
529 
53i 
534 
536 
538 
538 

539 
54i 
548 
561 
565 
565 
566 
568 
570 
57i 

576 

578 

578 

579 
581 

584 
586 
588 
588 
59 1 
593 
593 
596 

597 
600 
600 
600 
601 
602 



XX11 



Contents 



The Spanish-American War 
The Isthmian Canal 
Institutional Life . 

Industrial Conditions 
Social Conditions . 
Education 

Questions ami Topics 

Appendix : 

History and Civics in the Lower Grades . 

Declaration of Independence ...... 

Constitution of the United States ...... 

Dates of Admission, Areas and Populations of the States and 
Territories of the United States . 



PAGE 

604 

606 
608 
608 
618 

619 
624 



Index 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



The Capitol at Washington — East Front . . . Frontispiece 

PAGE 

Mediterranean Merchant Vessel of the Time of Columbus . . 6 
The Fleet of Columbus ........ 8 

Columbus ........... 9 

Northmen on a Voyage . . . . . . . . u 

Magellan ........... 14 

De Soto's Discovery of the Mississippi . . . . -15 

La Salle 18 

The Spanish Armada attacked by the English Ships ... 23 
An Indian Encampment ........ 27 

An Indian Village of Another Tribe ...... 27 

Captain John Smith ......... 39 

Quarrel between Bacon and Berkeley ...... 43 

George Calvert, Lord Baltimore . . . . . . -45 

Oglethorpe ........... 49 

The Landing of the Pilgrims ....... 53 

Roger Williams .......... 56 

John Endicott .......... 66 

Governor Andros . . . . . . . . -74 

Henry Hudson's Vessel, the Half Moon, in the Hudson River . 78 
Peter Stuyvesant ......... 80 

The Battery, New York, in the Seventeenth Century ... 83 

Penn making a Treaty with the Indians 86 

The Opening Lines of the Pennsylvania Charter . . 88, 89 

Champlain ........... 98 

An Early French Fort . . . . . . . .100 

Champlain's Attack on an Iroquois Fort . . . . .102 

Early French Fur-traders on a Canadian River . . . -103 

The Fortress of Louisburg 107 

Montcalm . . . . . . . . . . 113 

William Pitt 114 

xxiii 



xxiv Illustrations 

PAGE 

Quebec in 1759 u ^ 

Wolfe 118 

Charleston at the Time of the Revolution 132 

Tobacco Rolling 135 

John Winthrop's Mill, New London, Connecticut . . . 138 

Jonathan Edwards . . . . . . . . .145 

Patrick Henry 149 

Colonial Mansion . . . . . . . . 151 

Slave Quarters on a Carolina Rice Plantation . . . .158 

A Garden of Colonial Days 162 

The Kitchen of a Plantation Mansion . . . . . .164 

Wealthy Southerners — Their Costumes and Manners . . 166 

A Salem Schoolhouse with Whipping-post in the Near Street . 170 

Spinning Wheel . ......... 176 

Foot Stove ' . . .177 

Old State House, Philadelphia 179 

Faneuil Hall . . . . . . . . . .184 

William Penn 198 

Puritan Service in Plymouth Church ...... 205 

Pohick Church, Mount Vernon, Virginia 206 

An Old Log Schoolhouse . . . . . . . .212 

Frontispiece to an Old Spelling Book 216 

Benjamin Franklin 221 

King Charles I 237 

King John 240 

Facsimile of Portion of Magna Charta 241 

Houses of Parliament 242 

Tablet commemorating Boston Tea Party 259 

Samuel Adams .......... 267 

Battle of Lexington ......... 270 

Battle of Bunker Hill 274 

King George III . . . . . . . . . • 280 

The Declaration of Independence — Facsimile of Jefferson's 

Original Draft 282 

Washington's Retreat from Long Island 291 

Lafayette ........... 303 

John Paul Jones .......... 306 

On the March with George Rogers Clark 307 

Nathanael Greene 313 



Illustrations 



xxv 



The Surrender of Comwallis ...... 


3i8 


James Madison ......... 


335 


Signing of the Constitution, September 17, 1787 . 


340 


Chief Justice John Marshall . . . 


344 


George Washington ........ 


35° 


Andrew Jackson ......... 


358 


John Adams ......... 


366 


Thomas Jefferson ........ 


373 


Daniel Webster ......... 


378 


William Henry Harrison ....... 


382 


The Battle of New Orleans ....... 


385 


James Monroe ......... 


39 r 


Alexander Hamilton ........ 


395 


A Flatboat on the Ohio ....... 


409 


An Early Pioneer Settlement in Kentucky .... 


411 


The Erie Canal ......... 


412 


The First Cotton Gin ........ 


420 


The First Trip of Fulton's Boat, the Clermont, September, 1807 


424 


The Wayside Inn ........ 


425 


Stagecoach of 1828 ........ 


426 


Scene at a Fire in 1800 ....... 


427 


Old South Church, Boston ....... 


429 


The University of Virginia, as designed by Thomas Jefferson 


43° 


Washington Irving ........ 


43i 


John Quincv Adams ........ 


450 


Millard Fillmore ......... 


45- 


Zachary Taylor . ... 


45 3 


Facsimile of the Exposition and Protest .... 


4?; 


John C. Calhoun . . . ... 


456 


Medal of Jackson destroying the Bank .... 


459 


Martin Van Buren 


463 


Lewis and Clark in Council with the Indians 


465 


John Tyler 


. 468 


James K. Polk 


470 


Scotfs Entrance into the City of Mexico .... 


• 47i 


An Emigrant Train ........ 


• 473 


Henry Clay ......... 


. 481 


Franklin Pierce ......... 


. 483 


The Supreme Court Chamber 


• 485 



XXVI 



Illustrations 



An Early Railroad Train 

Samuel F. B. Morse . 

Elias Howe .... 

The First McCormick Reaper 

Street Scene in New York City in 1859 

Edgar Allan Poe 

Nathaniel Hawthorne . 

James Russell Lowell . 

Abraham Lincoln 

Jefferson Davis .... 

James Buchanan 

Bombardment of Fort Sumter 

Robert E. Lee .... 

Facsimile of Portion of Emancipation 

Scene at Battle of Gettysburg 

Ulysses S. Grant 

Farrago t in Mobile Bay 

The McLean House. Appomattox 

The Fight between the Monitor and th 

Andrew Johnson 

A Sample Australian Ballot 

Chester A. Arthur 

James A. Garfield 

Inauguration of a President 

Rutherford B. Hayes . 

Benjamin Harrison 

William McKinley 

McKinley's Home at Canton, Ohio 

Grover Cleveland 

Theodore Roosevelt 

Admiral George Dewey 

San Juan Blockhouse, showing Marks 

Panama Canal in Construction 

A Cotton Factory in Alabama 

City Hall, San Francisco 

Shipbuilding on the Pacific Coast 

Main Waiting Room, Immigration Bui 

Horace Greeley .... 



Proclamat 



e Merrimac 



of Shot 



ding, New York City 



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MAPS 



Facing; 



The World as known before the Time of Columbus 
Trade Routes between Europe and Asia at Time of Columbus 
The World, showing Routes of Explorers ..... 
North America, showing Early Discoveries, Explorations, and 

Routes of Explorers ........ 

Disposition of Territory in the New World . . . 
Distribution of Indian Tribes in North America .... 

Territory granted to Virginia Company and its Two Branches 
The Southern Colonies just before the French and Indian War . 

Facing 
The New England Colonies just before the French and Indian 

War ......... Facing 

The Middle Colonies just before the French and Indian War 

Facing 
The Thirteen Colonies and the French Claims 
Campaigns and Battles of the French and Indian War 
Relief Map of Eastern United States . 
Region of Large Plantations and Slave Population 
Boston and Vicinity .... 

Campaigns in the Middle Colonies 

The Southern Campaigns in the Revolution 

Claims and Cessions .... 

The United States in 1803 . 
The United States in 1828 . 
The United States in 1850 . 
Territorial Acquisitions, 1 783-1 853 
The United States, i860 
Eastern Campaign, Civil War 
Western Campaign, Civil War 
Campaign of 1864-1865 
The United States in 1900 . 
The World with Special Reference to United States Between 606- 

xxvii 



Facing 

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INTRODUCTORY 



CONDITIONS FAVORABLE TO THE DISCOVERY OF 
AMERICA 

I. Ancient Ideas of the World 

II. False Ideas of the World not due to Lack of Civilization 

III. Conditions in Ancient Europe hindering Exploration 

IV. Conditions leading to Exploration 

i . Advance in Education and Civilization 

2. Increasing Importance of Commerce 

3. Need of New Trade Routes 

DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS 

I. Spanish Discoveries and Explorations 

1 . Work of Columbus 

2. Other Spanish Explorers 

II. English Discoveries and Explorations 

III. French Discoveries and Explorations 

IV. Portuguese Discoveries and Explorations 
V. Dutch Discoveries and Explorations 

DISPOSITION OF TERRITORY IN THE NEW WORLD 
DECLINE OF SPANISH POWER 

I. Spain's Early Supremacy on the Sea 
II. Defeat of the Spanish Armada 
III. Rise of English Sea Power 

THE AMERICAN INDIAN 

I. Origin of Name 
II. Classification according to Civilization 

1. The Savage and the Barbarous Indians 

2. The Half-civilized Indians 

III. Appearance and Manner of Living 

IV. Character 

1 B 1 



Introductory 



CONDITIONS FAVORABLE TO THE DISCOVERY OF 
AMERICA 

1. Ancient Ideas concerning the World. — Although the 
New World has existed and has been inhabited by man- 
kind and by the lower animals for many thousands of 
years, it was totally unknown to the people of the Old 
World until a little more than four hundred years ago. 
For more than six thousand years the people of Europe 
believed that the earth was flat, and that it was covered 
with water except that part occupied by Europe, Asia, and 
Africa. They had no idea that North America, South 
America, and Australia existed. They did not even know 
how large Asia and Africa were. Some of them were 
acquainted with western Asia and northern Africa, but 
they did not know how far these continents extended. 
Marco Polo and a few others had visited China and had 
heard of Japan, but this was all that the people of Europe 
knew of eastern Asia, and they knew still less about south- 
ern Africa. Although great civilized nations had existed 
around the shores of the Mediterranean Sea for probably 
more than six thousand years, the people of these nations 
thought that the earth was many times smaller than it is. 
They believed that there was nothing but darkness and 
terrors beyond the small part which they knew about, and 
that evil spirits and great monsters would destroy any 
one who ventured into this unknown space. 

2. False Ideas not due to Lack of Civilization. — The 
wrong idea which the people of Europe had for so many 
thousand years regarding the extent of the land and the 
shape of the earth was not due to lack of a high state of 
civilization. The people of Greece more than twenty-three 






Conditions favorable to Discovery 3 

hundred years ago, and the people of Rome more than 
two thousand years ago, were much better educated than 
were the people of Europe four hundred years ago, when 
Columbus discovered the New World. The civilization 
which these ancient Greeks and Romans developed ex- 
celled in many ways the civilization which existed in 
Europe during the time of Columbus. The literature, the 
sculpture, and the fine, noble buildings produced by them 
have never yet been excelled, and in some things along 
these lines we cannot do as well as was done in ancient 
Greece and Rome. 

3. Conditions hindering Discoveries and Explorations. — 
While the great mass of the people of Europe at the time 
the New World was discovered were not so intelligent in 
many respects as were the Greeks and Romans, they lived 
under conditions which would cause them to think more 
about the extent of the land and the shape of the earth, and 
hence they would naturally have a greater desire to find out 
the truth about these matters. The Greeks and Romans 
occupied the peninsulas of Greece and Italy, which together 
are not as large as the state of Texas, and less than one 
twenty-seventh as large as the rest of Europe. Half-civilized 
people lived in all the other parts of Europe except those 
parts conquered by Rome. The Greeks and Romans were 
kept busy defending themselves against these people, and 
were finally compelled to submit to them. They had all 
they could do to learn about Europe and the other con- 
tinents around the Mediterranean Sea, without trying to 
explore the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, and they seem to 
have had no desire to do so. Aristotle, a Greek philoso- 
pher who lived twenty-two hundred years ago, believed 
that the earth was round and that eastern Asia could 
be reached by sailing west from western Europe. Some 



Conditions favorable to Discovery 5 

other philosophers who lived between the time of Aristotle 
and the discovery of America had the same idea ; but the 
people of Greece and Rome, and later those in the rest of 
Europe, were too busy with affairs and conditions in the 
Old World to think seriously about these ideas, or to 
attempt to put them into practice by sailing west over the 
Atlantic Ocean. 

4. Geographical Speculation in Europe in Fifteenth Cen- 
tury. — It was quite different a little more than four hun- 
dred years ago when the New World was discovered. More 
people lived in Europe then than ever before, and through 
natural advancement and the influence of Greek and Roman 
laws, literature, and ideas, all Europe had become civilized. 
Having occupied all of Europe, having become more intel- 
ligent and progressive, it was but natural that many of the 
practical and educated men, as well as the philosophers, 
should ask themselves the question, — What lies beyond 
the waters? This desire to know more about the sjze and 
shape of the earth, together with the improvement in ship- 
building and the practical use of the compass for the pur- 
poses of navigation, would soon have led to the exploration 
of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, and to the discovery of 
America, even if the condition of commerce which is dis- 
cussed below had not made business men extremely anx- 
ious to secure some new way by which they could reach 
the rich products of India and eastern Asia. 

5. Germanic Tribes. — During the time of the Roman 
Empire, northern Europe was inhabited by the Germanic 
tribes, who were then barbarians. Beginning about 260 a.d. 
and extending down to nearly 600 a.d., these barbarians 
overran the Roman Empire. While Greece and Rome 
before this time had traded a great deal with Asia, the 
invasions from the north gave civilization a setback and 



Introductory- 



destroyed this commerce. It was not until about seven 
hundred years ago that the people of Europe again became 
settled in well-organized governments. They gradually 
became civilized and educated and better acquainted with 
Asia and its products. 

6. Early Trade between Europe and Asia. — The mer- 
chants of Europe began to trade the woods, metals, and 

other things produced there to 
the people of Asia for the 
spices, pearls, silks, gems, and 
other things which the latter 
produced. By 1400 a.d. this 
trade had increased until it 
constituted a great commerce 
or interchange of products be- 
tween the peoples of Europe 
and Asia. Great commercial 
cities grew up whose prosperity 
depended largely on this com- 
merce. Venice and Genoa were 
two of the most important of 
these cities, and their mer- 
chants carried on an immense 
trade with Asia. From the 
commercial cities on the coast 
the rich products of Asia were sent inland to the different 
parts of Europe, and naturally there was an increasing 
demand for these comforts and luxuries. 

7. Early Trade Routes. — The goods which Europe sent 
to Asia and which Asia sent to Europe had to be carried 
by ships and by caravans over one of three routes. These 
routes were by way of the Black and Caspian seas, and 
thence overland to India ; across Syria to the Persian Gulf, 




Mediterranean Merchant 

Vessel of the Time of 

Columbus 



Conditions favorable to Discovery 7 

and thence by ship to India ; and by way of Egypt to the 
Red Sea, and thence by ship to India. Now it so hap- 
pened that the Turks, during the time that this trade 
between Europe and Asia was increasing, were gradually 
overrunning the western part of Asia, which included the 
territory over which these trade routes passed. 




8. Attacks on Commerce by the Turks. — The Turks 
made it a regular business to capture the caravans convey- 
ing these goods, and to murder those in charge. By 1490 
they had almost destroyed this great commerce. It be- 
came necessary, therefore, for the people of Europe to 
give up this trade, or to find some new route over which 
the goods might be conveyed. This caused merchants and 
sailors to give the question of finding a new route serious 



8 Introductory 

consideration. Some maintained that, if the earth were 
round, eastern Asia could be reached by sailing west from 
Europe. Among this number was Christopher Columbus. 




The Fleet of Columbus 



DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS 

9. First Voyage of Columbus. — Other men had phi- 
losophized about the earth's being round, but Columbus 
was the first to test the correctness of this theory. On the 
third day of August, 1492, with three small ships and 
ninety men, he set sail from Palos, Spain, bidding good- 
by to the known world, sailing out into the unknown 



Discoveries and Explorations 




Columbus 

seas, and facing the terrors which superstition had for 
ages planted in the mind of man. It was an act as brave 
as history records. The trackless ocean was his highway ; 
faith in a scientific theory his guiding star. On the even- 
ing of October 11, seventy days after leaving Palos, he 
came in sight of one of the West India Islands, a member 



io Introductory 

of the Bahama group. Before returning to Spain he dis- 
covered Cuba and Hayti. 

10. Subsequent Voyages of Columbus ; his Death. — Al- 
though Columbus made three other voyages to the New 
World, and discovered the mainland of South America 
and explored the coast of Honduras, he believed that he 
had discovered Asia, and was very much surprised and 
disappointed because he could not find the rich cities and 
products of that country. He died without knowing that 
he had discovered a new world ; and if he had known this 
fact, he would, perhaps, have been still more disappointed. 
He had his heart set on finding a short and safe route to 
the rich commerce of India, and so had the people of 
Europe. They were sorely disappointed because he was 
not successful, and permitted him to die neglected, poor, 
and heart-broken. Like that of many other great men, 
his work was appreciated only by succeeding generations. 

11. Magnitude of Columbus's Discovery ; the Northmen in 
America. — The discovery of America ranks as the greatest 
geographical discovery in history, because it opened up a 
new world. And the world has given Columbus the 
credit. It is true that adventurous sailors from Norway, 
Sweden, and Denmark — called the Norse, or Northmen 
— visited the northeastern shores of America about nine 
hundred years ago. They had settlements in Iceland and 
Greenland, and would occasionally cross Davis's Strait to 
the mainland of North America, which they considered a 
part of Europe. There is no evidence to show that they 
ever made a settlement on this continent. Their visits to 
the mainland soon ceased, and the land and these early 
voyages were forgotten by the sailors. About one hundred 
years later the scholars of the northern countries reduced 
the story of these voyages to writing, but even these writ- 



Discoveries and Explorations 



i i 



ings were forgotten, and the rest of Europe did not hear of 
the Norse voyages until after Columbus had discovered 
the New World ; so they had no influence whatever in 
leading up to the real discovery of America, nor did they 
affect the later history of this continent. In no way can 
they deprive Columbus of his hard-earned fame as the 
world's greatest discoverer. 




Northmen on a Voyage 

12. The Spanish discovered and explored most of the West 
Indian Islands, Florida, the southwestern part of the 
United States, Mexico, Central America, and all of South 
America except Brazil. The principal Spanish explorers 
whose work had any direct relation to the United States, 
or to determining the extent and shape of the earth, were 
Columbus, Ponce de Leon, Balboa, Magellan, and De Soto. 



1 2 Introductory 

Ponce de Leon was perhaps the first Spaniard to touch 
the mainland of what is now the United States. He 
was in the Bahamas and heard of a land to the northward, 
rich in gold and with a wonderful spring that would make 
an old man young again. He determined to explore the 
country about which he had heard such wonderful stories. 
Soon after setting sail the Spanish came in sight of the 
coast, and as the day was Easter Sunday, Ponce de Leon 
called the new land Florida. He explored the country and 
a few years later returned with a number of men, intending 
to settle there. The hostile Indians and sickness among 
his men caused them to return to Cuba, where Ponce de 
Leon soon died of a wound received on this expedition. 

13. Balboa and the Discovery of the Pacific. — Balboa, 
another Spanish explorer, had accompanied one of the 
Spanish expeditions to Panama. He had trouble with his 
commander and soon became the leader of a small band of 
adventurers in search of gold. One day while he was 
weighing some gold an Indian chief struck the scales from 
his hand and made it known to him that a great sea lay 
beyond the mountains, the shores of which were rich in 
gold. Balboa immediately set out with his men, and on 
reaching the top of the mountains saw stretching out 
before him an endless sheet of water. He descended, and 
wading out into the ocean took possession of it in the name 
of the king of Spain. He called it the South Sea. 

14. Magellan's Fleet first sails around the Globe. — 
Magellan passed around South America and crossed the 
Pacific to India, giving the vast ocean over which he sailed 
its name. One of his five ships returned to Spain around 
South Africa. It was the first ship to sail around the world; 
but its brave and able commander, Magellan, was killed 
by, savages in the Philippine Islands. Magellan accom- 



H 



Introductory 



plished what Columbus had failed to do — he discovered a 
sea route to India. But the distance was so great that it 

was of little value. 

15. De Soto and the Dis- 
covery of the Mississippi. 
— Some time after Ponce 
de Leon had discovered 
Florida, De Soto with 
over five hundred men 
landed in Florida and 
started inland in search 
of gold. They discovered 
the Mississippi River and 
explored a portion of the 
southern part of the Miss- 
issippi Valley. At length, 
worn out by toils and 
hardships, De Soto died 
on the banks of the great 
river. At night, in great secrecy, his body was sunk in its 
waters. This was to keep the Indians from learning of his 
death and securing his body. All these Spanish discov- 
eries and explorations were made between 1492 and 1542. 
16. Chief English Explorers. — The English discovered 
and explored the eastern part of North America from 
Florida to Canada. The principal English explorers were 
the Cabots, Drake, Gilbert, and Raleigh. 

Five years after Columbus discovered America, John 
Cabot, an Italian sailing an English ship, sailed across the 
Atlantic. He explored the eastern coast of North America 
from Labrador south to Cape Cod, or possibly farther. Not 
much is known of this voyage. About eighty years later 
Sir Francis Drake began his explorations. 




Magellan 



Discoveries and Explorations 



l S 



17. Drake's Wonderful Voyage. — Sir Francis Drake was 
the first Englishman to sail around the world. He had 
received permission from Queen Elizaheth to attack Spanish 




De Soto's Discovery of the Mississippi 



merchant ships, and sailed for the South Pacific. He plun- 
dered towns in Chili and Peru, and captured treasure ships. 
From one ship he took over twenty tons of silver and eighty 
pounds of gold. Fearing that Spanish war ships were 



1 6 Introductory 

waiting for him in the Straits of Magellan, he decided to 
return home by going around the Cape of Good Hope. 
He first sailed up along the coast of North America prob- 
ably as far as Alaska, and then across the Pacific and around 
Africa to England. 

18. Sir Humphrey Gilbert; Sir Walter Raleigh. —The 
former was the first Englishman to attempt .to settle in 
the New World. A glance at a map will show that a ship 
sailing directly west from England will reach Labrador 
or Newfoundland. This part of North America is much 
colder than England, although no farther north, because 
the Gulf Stream makes England's climate milder. Gilbert 
did not know this when he sailed for the New World 
and attempted to start a colony in Newfoundland. The 
attempt was a failure, and the next year Sir Walter Raleigh 
was given permission to found a colony. He was wise 
enough to send out an exploring expedition. This expedi- 
tion reported the region that is now North Carolina to be 
the best suited for settlement. Several attempts were made, 
but all proved failures. One little colony was entirely lost, 
and no one ever knew what happened to it. All these 
discoveries and explorations were made between 1497 
and 1589. 

19. Principal French Explorers. — The French explored 
the larger part of the Mississippi Valley and the eastern 
part of Canada, including the region of the Great Lakes. 
The principal explorers were Cartier, Champlain, Mar- 
quette, Joliet, and La Salle. 

20. Cartier; Champlain. — The former explored the St. 
Lawrence and the adjoining country as far as Montreal. 
When he first entered the Gulf of St. Lawrence he thought 
at last he had found a water passage through the continent 
that barred the way to India. On sailing farther inland 




100° Longitude West from Greeuwich 9u J 



l 7 



Introductory 



on a later voyage he learned that it was the mouth of a 
river. Some time later Henry IV of France was anxious 
to have the French colonize in the New World. Among 
those who made attempts was Champlain, a man of great 
ability. He explored the coast as far south as Cape Cod. 
Later he founded Quebec and discovered Lake Champlain 

and Lake Huron. 
C s 21. Marquette 

and Joliet. — The 
French were very 
active in their ex- 
plorations. Two 
men, Marquette 
and Joliet, pushed 
westward to the 
head waters of the 
Mississippi and ex- 
plored as far south 
as the Arkansas 
River. 

22. La Salle a 
year later com- 
pleted the explora- 
tion of the Mis- 
sissippi. He explored also the Ohio River, and Lakes 
Ontario, Erie, Huron, and Michigan. He took possession, 
in the name of France, of all the country drained by the 
Mississippi and the Ohio and their tributaries, and named 
it Louisiana. In order to secure permanent possession 
of the country for France, La Salle attempted to plant a 
colony at the mouth of the Mississippi. While on his way 
to Canada to secure supplies for his colonists he was mur- 
dered by one of his own men, and the colony which he 




i^a Salle 



Disposition of Territory 1 9 

had planted soon ceased to exist. The discoveries and 
explorations of Cartier were made between 1534 and 1543. 
The discoveries and explorations made by La Salle and the 
other French explorers named above were made between 
1607 and 1684. 

23. Portuguese Discoveries and Explorations. — Americus 
Vespucius in 1501, while in the employ of the king of 
Portugal, explored the coast of Brazil. This voyage was 
quite important in addition to being the basis of Portu- 
gal's claim to Brazil. Up to this time the people of 
Europe thought all the New World was a part of Asia. 
They now saw that the land discovered and explored by 
Americus Vespucius was a new continent, as they knew 
that Asia did not extend so far south, and on the sugges- 
tion made by a German professor in 1507 it was called 
America, in honor of its discoverer as he supposed. When 
it became known that North America was not a part of 
Asia, the name America was applied to both the great 
continents of the New World, and the prefixes " North " 
and "South" were added to distinguish the one from the 
other. 

24. Dutch Discoveries and Explorations. — In 1609 Henry 
Hudson discovered and explored the Hudson River as far 
up as Albany. Hudson was an English sailor, but was in 
the employ of the Dutch East India Company, and Hol- 
land's claim to New York — called New Netherland by the 
Dutch — was based on this discovery. 

DISPOSITION OF TERRITORY IN THE NEW WORLD 

25. Right of Discovery ; European Claims. — It was 

customary for the captain of a ship or the commander of 
a fleet when he discovered land in the New World to 



Decline of Spanish Power 21 

take possession of it in the name of his sovereign. Thus 
the nations of Europe based their claim to territory on the 
"right of discovery." It was on this so-called right that 
Spain claimed most of the West Indies, all of South 
America except Brazil, Central America, Mexico, Florida, 
and the southwestern part of the United States ; England, 
the Atlantic coast from Canada to Florida ; France, all the 
territory drained by the Mississippi and the St. Lawrence 
and their tributaries ; Holland, New York ; and Portugal, 
Brazil. 

26. English Territorial Grants. — England granted her 
territory in North America to companies and to individuals, 
and established some crown colonies, the latter being under 
the direct control of the sovereign. Many of the grants 
made by the English sovereigns were described as extending 
from "sea to sea," that is, from the Atlantic to the Pacific. 
As these grants did not always extend due east and west, 
they frequently overlapped, the same land being included 
in different grants at the same time- This caused consider- 
able trouble, even after the colonies secured their indepen- 
dence from England. 



DECLINE OF SPANISH POWER 

27. Spain's Early Supremacy on the Sea. — For more 
than eighty years after the discovery of America, Spain 
was the most powerful nation in the world. She was 
virtually mistress of the seas, having a larger navy than 
any other nation. This gave her an immense advantage in 
securing lands and forming settlements in the New World. 
So long as she was stronger on the seas than any other 
nation, she could control, to a large extent, the development 
of America. She had secured far more of this new territory 



22 Introductory 

than any other nation. She was obtaining a large amount 
of money from the mines of Mexico and Peru. All this 
tended to increase her influence in both Europe and 
America. 

But Spain was soon to lose this proud leadership among 
the nations of the world. England sent an army to assist 
Holland in its attempt to regain its independence from 
Spain. Sir Francis Drake and other bold English sea 
captains captured the Spanish treasure ships which were 
on their way from Mexico and Peru. They even sailed 
into the Spanish harbors and destroyed vessels in sight 
of the people. Drake called these acts " singeing the 
king of Spain's beard." 

28. Defeat of Spanish Armada. — These acts so enraged 
the Spanish king, Philip II, that he determined to invade 
England and annex it to his kingdom. In 1 588 he collected 
a fleet of about one hundred and fifty ships, which carried 
more than three thousand cannon. This fleet was consid- 
ered so powerful that it was called the Invincible Armada. 
It was thought by many military men on the continent of 
Europe that England would be conquered. The English 
people were thoroughly aroused, but they were not fright- 
ened. They were putting forth every effort to collect a fleet 
with which to meet the Armada. The English navy con- 
tained but thirty-eight ships, and most of these were small 
and poorly equipped. But the merchants gave their ships 
freely for the purpose of defense, and a fleet was collected, 
though it was not so large nor so well equipped as the Span- 
ish fleet. Lord Effingham, Drake, Howard, Hawkins, and 
other English sea captains were placed in command. No 
greater sea fighters ever lived. The Spanish commanders 
did not compare with them in ability. When the Invincible 
Armada entered the English Channel, the English fleet did 



Decline of Spanish Power 



2 3 



not make a direct attack, but hung on its flanks, destroying 
ship after ship, and in a long running fight drove the 
Armada through the channel into the North Sea. The 
defeated Spaniards could not return to Spain through the 
English Channel, and were forced to sail around the north 
of Scotland, where storms destroyed so many of their ships 
that not more than one-third of them finally reached Spain. 



^~==^^^i ±±r^ ^^^^i^^ 







The Spanish Armada attacked by the English Ships 

29. The Rise of English Sea Power. — This crushing 
defeat of the Invincible Armada had a most important 
bearing on the history of the New World. It marked the 
beginning of Spain's decline on both land and sea. She 
has been growing weaker ever since that time. It also 
marks the beginning of England as a sea power. She 
soon became mistress of the seas and has since held this 
position. All this meant that England and not Spain 
should have most to do in shaping the growth of America. 
From this time on France was England's only serious com- 
petitor in colonizing North America. 



24 Introductory 



THE AMERICAN INDIAN 

30. Origin of the Name. — When Columbus discovered 
the New World he was not surprised to find it inhabited, 
because he thought it a part of Asia. As he believed that 
the islands which he had discovered were a part of the East 
Indies, he called the people who lived on them, Indians. 
This name was afterward applied to all the native inhabit- 
ants of America. This race of people does not seem to be 
closely related to any of the other races of mankind. No- 
body knows anything definite about its origin or how long 
it has lived here. It is certain, however, that the Indians 
have lived in America for ages, long before Greece or Rome 
was founded. 

31. Three Classes of Indians ; the Savage Indians. — The 
native inhabitants of America represented three stages 
of human advancement, — the savage, the barbarous, and 
the half civilized. The savage Indians lived in North 
America. In the United States they occupied Alaska, all 
the Rocky Mountain region, except a portion of Arizona 
and New Mexico, and all the territory west of these moun- 
tains. In Canada they occupied the territory from Hudson 
Bay west to the Pacific Ocean. They were divided into 
several tribes, among the most important being the Apache. 

32. The Barbarous Indians also lived in North America. 
In the United States they occupied all the country east of the 
Rocky Mountains, and in Canada all the country south and 
east of Hudson Bay. The only Indians who had any real 
influence on the history of the United States occupied the ter- 
ritory between the Mississippi River and the Atlantic Ocean. 
They are divided into three general races, — Maskoki, 
Iroquois, and Algonquin. Each division or race consisted 



26 Introductory 

of a number of tribes, each tribe of a number of clans, and 
each clan was composed of a number of families: Each 
race spoke a different language. The Maskoki occupied 
all of the southern states east of the Mississippi, except a 
portion of Tennessee and North Carolina. They included 
a number of tribes, the most important ones being the 
Creeks, Seminoles, Choctaws, and Chickasaws. The Iro- 
quois race was the strongest one in North America, and it 
had more influence on the history of the United States 
than any other. It occupied New York, Pennsylvania, the 
northeastern part of Ohio, the larger part of North Carolina 
and Tennessee, and the country between Lakes Huron and 
Erie. The most important tribes of this race were the Five 
Nations in New York, the Hurons north of Lake Erie, and 
the Cherokees of Tennessee. The Algonquin race occupied 
all the country east of the Mississippi between Tennessee 
and North Carolina on the south, to Labrador on the north, 
except that part occupied by the Iroquois. Some of the 
most important tribes of this race were the Powhatans of 
Virginia, the Delawares of Delaware, the Mohegans and 
Narragansetts of New England, the Shawnees of the 
Ohio Valley, and the Ottawas and Chippewas of the Great 
Lake region. 

33. The Half-civilized Indians occupied the mountain 
region extending from Mexico in the United States to 
Chili in South America. Among the most important races 
or nations were the Pueblos of Arizona and New Mexico, 
the Aztecs of Mexico, and the Incas of Peru. Of these, 
the Incas were the most civilized. They built cities and 
temples, constructed military roads, raised various products, 
and made fine cotton and woolen cloth. The potato is 
a native of Peru, where the Spaniards found it under 
cultivation. They introduced it into Europe. 



The American Indian 



27 



34. Appearance and Manner of Living. — In some re- 
spects, all the Indians inhabiting North America were the 
same. All had black hair, black eyes, a copper-colored 




A n India n K.nl a m r.\i lnt 




An Indian Village of Another Tribe 



skin, high cheek bones, and no beard. As was stated above, 
the barbarous Indians, and especially those between the 
Mississippi River and the Atlantic Ocean, were the only 



28 Introductory 

ones who had any important influence on the history of the 
United States. Although they raised some agricultural 
products, as Indian corn, tomatoes, tobacco, pumpkins, 
and beans, they secured most of their food by hunting and 
fishing. They lived in huts and wigwams, and the women 
did most of the hard, unpleasant work. This mode of liv- 
ing and of securing food required a large territory for a 
small number of people, and therefore the number of 
Indians was always small. It is doubtful if the entire 
Indian population east of the Mississippi exceeded one 
hundred and forty thousand. In other words, the popula- 
tion of New York City at the present time ( 1905) is more 
than twenty times greater than was the Indian population 
of the entire country east of the Mississippi. 

35. Character. — Although the American Indian was 
kind and hospitable to friends, also to strangers with whose 
relatives or nation he was at peace, he was by nature cruel, 
revengeful, and treacherous. He was brave as to physical 
pain, and would suffer torture without complaint, but in 
war he used all the tactics of the savage and the coward. 
He would not make a fair, open fight if he could possibly 
avoid it, preferring to shoot his enemy from a safe place of 
concealment. He delighted in the torture of prisoners and 
in the murder of women and children. In domestic life he 
was lazy and filthy. But with all these faults he was intel- 
ligent, proud, and haughty, and could never be enslaved. 
He despised manual labor as beneath his dignity, and as 
fit only for women and children. His dislike for labor, and 
the fact that he had no conception whatever of private 
ownership in land, were the principal reasons why he would 
not adopt the white man's civilization and settle down to a 
peaceful, industrious life. This is not true of the Creeks 
nor of some of the other southern Indians. They adopted 



Questions and Topics 29 

to some extent the civilization of the whites. In the Indian 
Territory to-day their descendants have a well-organized 
government, and are quite industrious and civilized. 



QUESTIONS AND TOPICS 

CONDITIONS FAVORABLE TO THE DISCOVERY OF 
AMERICA 

Questions for Class Recitations 

(In connection with the questions which follow, each pupil should 
read the first number of Hart's " Source Reader in American History," 
pp. 1-53. See "Explanatory and Suggestive," page ix.) Explain fully 
what the people of the Old World for a long time believed about the 
shape and size of the earth. For about how long did the people have 
these wrong ideas? How much of the world was known before the 
New World was discovered? (Each pupil should draw a map of the 
world as known before the time of Columbus.) Describe the civiliza- 
tion of ancient Greece and Rome. How does this civilization tend to 
prove that the failure to discover the New World long before it was 
discovered was not due to ignorance on the part of the people of 
Europe? Explain fully the conditions which caused the Greeks and 
Romans to take so little interest in learning more about the shape and 
size of the earth. What effect did the barbarian invasions have on the 
civilization of southern Europe? Before the time of Columbus, what 
conditions prevented the people of the other nations of Europe from 
discovering the New World? What did some philosophers who lived 
during this long period believe regarding the shape and size of the 
earth? Explain carefully how the general advance in education and 
civilization made the people of Europe anxious to learn more about 
these things. Give a careful discussion of the growth of commerce up 
to about the time Columbus discovered America. Explain how com- 
merce was carried on between Europe and Asia. Explain carefully 
what interfered with this valuable commerce. Explain fully in what 
way this led to the discovery of America. (Each pupil should draw a 
map that will show the three trade routes between Europe and India, 
and that part of those routes that fell into the hands of the Turks.) 



30 Introductory 



DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS 

Questions for Class Recitations 

For what was Columbus searching when he made his voyage in 1492? 
Discuss his four voyages to the New World. Explain why he and other 
men in Europe were disappointed at the result of his discoveries and 
explorations. Who were the Northmen? When did they visit Amer- 
ica? What part of America did they visit? Why are they not consid- 
ered the real discoverers of the New World? Why were their voyages 
to America not very important? Describe the discoveries and explora- 
tions of Balboa. Describe the discoveries and explorations of Magellan. 
Describe the discoveries and explorations of Ponce de Leon. Of De 
Soto. Describe the voyages and explorations of the Cabots. Of what 
value were these explorations to England? Give a full description of 
Drake's voyage around the world. Describe the attempt of Gilbert 
and Raleigh to establish a colony in the New World. Describe the 
work of Cartier. Give a full description of the explorations of Cham- 
plain. Tell what you can of the work of Joliet and Marquette. Give 
a full description of La Salle's work. Why was the New World called 
America instead of being named for Columbus? Tell what you can of 
Henry Hudson and his work. (Each pupil should draw a map that 
will show plainly the route of each of the explorers and the part of the 
New World discovered and explored by each nation.) 



DISPOSITION OF TERRITORY IN THE NEW WORLD 

Questions for Class Recitations 

What was the "right of discovery"? What part of the New World 
did Spain claim by this right? What did England claim? What 
part did France claim? What territory in America did other nations 
claim by the right of discovery? How did England dispose of her 
territory in the New World? Why did this cause trouble in later 
years? (Each pupil should draw a map of North and South America, 
and indicate on said map the territory that was claimed by each of the 
European nations that claimed any of this territory.) 



Questions and Topics 3 1 



DECLINE OF SPANISH POWER 

Questions for Class Recitations 

How did the power of Spain compare with that of other nations at 
the time of Columbus? How did this help her in America? How 
did Spain's possessions in America help build up her influence in 
Europe? How did the English sea captains injure Spain, and who 
were the most noted of these captains? Why did the king of Spain 
make war on England? Describe the Invincible Armada. How did 
the English fleet compare with the Spanish fleet? Which nation had 
the better commanders? Describe the battle between the Armada 
and the English fleet. What was the effect of the defeat of the Invin- 
cible Armada on Spain? What effect did it have on England's sea 
power? How did this affect North America? 



THE AMERICAN INDIAN 

Questions for Class Recitations 

Why were the native inhabitants of America called Indians ? What 
is the difference between savage and barbarous Indians ? Between 
barbarous and half-civilized Indians ? Where did the savage Indians 
live ? What part of America did the barbarous Indians inhabit ? Into 
what races were the barbarous Indians divided ? Where did each race 
live ? How did these races differ ? Name the most important tribes 
of each race of the barbarous Indians. Where did the half-civilized 
Indians live ? How did they differ from the savage and barbarous 
Indians ? What Indians had the most influence on the history of the 
United States, the savage, the barbarous, or the half civilized ? Why 
was this ? (Each pupil should draw a map that will show plainly the 
territory which the savage and barbarous Indians occupied in North 
America. This map should also show plainly the territory occupied 
by each race and tribe of the barbarous Indians that lived east of the 
Mississippi.) In what ways were all North American Indians alike ? 
Tell all you can about the way they lived. Why were there not more 
Indians in so large a countrv ? Describe the nature and habits of the 



32 Introductory 

Indian. Why did the white man not make slaves of the Indians as he 
did of the negroes ? 



Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the conditions that prevented the discovery of the New 
World before the time of Columbus. Discuss the conditions that led 
to the discovery of America. Discuss the voyages of the Northmen 
to America. Discuss the Spanish discoveries and explorations. Dis- 
cuss the English explorations. Compare the explorations of the 
Spanish with those of the English in respect to location and impor- 
tance. How do the French explorations compare with those of the 
Spanish and English ? Discuss the claims of the various nations to 
the territory of the New World. Discuss the decline of Spanish power 
and its effect on America. Compare the savage, barbarous, and half- 
civilized Indians in respect to civilization and location. Describe the 
appearance of the American Indian and his manner of living. Discuss 
the character of the Indian. 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 
ORIGIN, GROWTH, AND POLITICAL HISTORY 

THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 
I. Virginia 

i . Origin and Growth in Population 

2. Character of Early Settlers: Government under Smith and 

Dale 

3. Origin of Representative Government in America 

4. Charter of the London Company Annulled 

5. Quarrels between the People and the Royal Governors 

6. Sir William Berkeley : the English Cavaliers 

7. Bacon's Rebellion 
II. Maryland 

1 . Origin and Growth in Population 

2. Nature of Government 

3. Invasion of Claiborne : Religious Disputes 

III. North and South Carolina 

1. Origin and Growth in Population 

2. Character of Colonists : Representative Government 

IV. Georgia 

1. Origin and Growth in Population 

2. Nature of Government 

THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 

I. Origin and Growth in Population 

1 . Origin of the Puritans and the Separatists 

2. Persecution of the Puritans and the Separatists 

3. The Founding of Plymouth Colony 

4. The Founding of the Massachusetts Bay Colony 

5. The Founding of Connecticut 

6. The Founding of New Haven 

7. New Haven annexed to Connecticut 

8. The Founding of Rhode Island 

D 33 



34 



The Thirteen Colonies 



9. Union of Towns 

10. The Settlement of New Hampshire 

1 1 . The Settlement of Maine 

II. Government in Early New England 

1. The Virginian and the Puritan: Union of Church and State 

2. Puritan Ideas of Government : Local Government 

3. Government under the Charters 

(a) Government in Massachusetts : Rights of Englishmen 

Demanded 
(<£) Government in Plymouth 

(c) Government in Rhode Island and Connecticut 

(d) The People controlled Law-making 

4. The New England Confederacy 
(a) Nature of the Confederacy 

(J?) The Massachusetts Bay Colony dissatisfied : Value of 
the Confederacy 
IIL Relations of the English with the Indians 

1. The Indians and the Pilgrims 

2. The Pequod War 
(«) Origin 

(/>) Destruction of the Pequods : Effect on the Other Indians 
of New England 

3. Treatment of the Indians by the Puritans 

4. The Englishman and the Indian did not understand Each 

Other 

5. King Philip's War 

(a) Origin 

(b) The War and its Results 

(c) Significance or Meaning of the Conflict 
IV. Under the Royal Governors 

1. Massachusetts loses her Charter 
(#) First Attack on her Charter 

(b) The Confederacy and the Commonwealth 

(c) Quarrels between King Charles and Massachusetts 

(d) Her Charter Annulled 

2. Rhode Island and Connecticut secure Royal Charters 

3. The Despotic Rule of Sir Edmund Andros 

4. Overthrow of the King and Andros : Massachusetts secures a 

New Charter 

5. New England from 1689 to 1776 



Origin, Growth, and Political History 35 



THE MIDDLE COLONIES 
I. New York 

1. Discovery and Settlement 

2. Character of the Colonists : Growth of the Colony 

3. Government under the Dutch 

4. The Colony under English Control 

5. The Colony under the Royal Governors 
II. New Jersey 

1. Origin and Growth in Population 

2. Political History 
HI. Delaware 

IV. Pennsylvania 

1. Origin: King Charles grants Pennsylvania to Penn 

2. Settlement and Growth in Population 

3. Nature of Government 

4. The Province under Deputy Governors 



36 The Thirteen Colonies 

ORIGIN, GROWTH, AND POLITICAL HISTORY 
THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 

Virginia 

36. Origin and Growth in Population. — As has already- 
been stated, England granted her territory in North Amer- 
ica to companies and to individuals, and established some 
crown colonies. Although the efforts of Sir Walter Raleigh 
to establish an English colony in the New World were not 
successful, they served to direct the attention of the Eng- 
lish people toward the question of planting colonies in 
America. The attack of the Spanish Armada had inter- 
rupted Raleigh's plans for colonization. After the destruc- 
tion of the Armada the English people were free to take 
up the matter again. During the latter part of the sixteenth 
century and the beginning of the seventeenth century there 
were hard times in England. This made many of the 
English people desire to emigrate to the New World in order 
to better their condition. Fortunately, King James I now 
came to their assistance. 

37. Grants to London and Plymouth Companies. — When 
James became king of England, he revoked the char- 
ter granted Raleigh, and in 1606 granted the land from 
about Cape Fear to the mouth of the Potomac River to 
a company composed of London merchants, called the 
London Company. At this same time the king granted 
the land from about New York City to Nova Scotia to a 
company called the Plymouth Company. The London 
Company and the Plymouth Company were really the two 
branches of one great company called the Virginia Com- 



Origin, Growth, and Political History 37 

pany, which was to have general control of all the territory 
from about Cape Fear to Nova Scotia. The boundaries 
of the territory granted to these two branch companies 
were changed from time to time. Each was almost inde- 




pendent of the main or Virginia Company. The general 
charter provided that the Virginia Company and the two 
branch companies were to be governed each by its own 
council, consisting of thirteen members. 

38. The Jamestown Colony. — The London Company 
sent out one hundred and five colonists, who in 1607 
founded Jamestown on the James River, this being the 



38 The Thirteen Colonies 

first permanent English settlement in America. More 
than half of these first settlers died the first year, and all 
would have perished had it not been for John Smith. He 
took charge of affairs, established order, and secured food 
from the Indians. Two years from the time the first set- 
tlers came, five hundred more arrived, but within six months 
all but sixty of these had died. Those remaining became 
discouraged, embarked on their vessels, and started down 
the James River ; but after going a few miles they met 
Lord Delaware with three ships, ample provisions, and 
many more settlers. The colony now became firmly estab- 
lished, and more colonists came over every year. By 1620 
there were more than four thousand ; in 1670 there were 
more than forty thousand ; and in 1775 this number had 
increased to about six hundred and seventy thousand. 

39. Character of the Early Settlers. — From 1607 to 
1624 the London Company governed Virginia. This com- 
pany was organized for the purpose of making money, 
and the early settlers who came over came for the same 
purpose. Very few of them intended to build homes in 
Virginia and to remain there permanently. Some called 
themselves gentlemen ; some were criminals taken from 
the jails of England ; and some were lazy and worth- 
less. Men of such character should be ruled by some 
authority which enforces the laws strictly and maintains 
order. This the London Company did. It appointed 
governors who, with its assistance, made laws and enforced 
them. 

40. Government under Smith and Dale. — Captain John 
Smith and Sir Thomas Dale were the two ablest of the 
early governors. Smith saved the colony from destruction 
during the first two years of its existence, by enforcing law 
and order, compelling the men to work, and procuring food 



Origin, Growth, and Political History 39 



from the Indians. In 161 1 Dale found the colony in very 
bad condition, many of the men refusing to work, and 
those who committed crimes going unpunished. Dale's 
administration marks 
the beginning of stable 
government in Virginia. 
New laws were adopted 
and strictly enforced. 
Thieves were hanged, 
and all the able-bodied 
were compelled to work. 
Up to this time all that 
the settlers raised or 
produced was put to- 
gether and became the 
common property of all. 
Dale changed this. He 
gave each man so much 
land, and this became his 
property. Everything 
he raised belonged to 
him, except two and one 
half barrels of corn exacted each year as a tax for the 
support of the government. This plan had the effect of 
making each man take more interest in what he did. 

41. Arrival of Colonists of a Superior Class. — During 
Dale's administration men of a different class began to 
come to Virginia. They came for the purpose of living 
there permanently and making homes for themselves 
and their families. They belonged to the sturdy middle 
class of England, the best and most substantial class of 
the nation. These colonists had been accustomed while in 
England to help make the laws under which they lived. 




Captain John Smith 



4-0 The Thirteen Colonies 

The taxes which they paid while in England could not be 
levied except by a body of men which they had elected. 
The English people had secured the right to tax them- 
selves, and the other liberties which they enjoyed, by long 
centuries of peaceful struggle and bloody warfare. 

42. Beginnings of Representative Government in America. 

— The new colonists prized these liberties so highly that, 
as soon as four thousand people had settled in Virginia, they 
asked the London Company to permit them to elect a body 
of men to help make the laws. Their request was granted, 
and two representatives were elected by each of the eleven 
settlements. This was not a new principle in English 
government. It meant simply that Englishmen in America 
were exercising the same rights that they had enjoyed while 
in England and which their fellow-citizens in England were 
then enjoying. The twenty-two men elected by the people 
met in the church at Jamestown on Friday, July 30, 1619. 
They constituted the first law-making body ever elected in 
America. Each one was called a burgess, and together 
they were called the House of Burgesses. They at once 
repealed the more severe laws passed by Dale and made 
new laws for the colony. The new laws, however, still 
compelled men to attend church, and in other ways inter- 
fered with what are called the personal liberties of the 
individual. 

43. Religious Troubles in England ; the Established Church. 

— During the ninety years before the first settlers came to 
Jamestown the people of Europe were constantly quarrel- 
ing and fighting about religion. The trouble began in 
Germany in 15 17 and soon extended to England. In 1534 
the government of England changed the Catholic church 
in England to some extent and made the king instead of 
the pope the head of the church. The new church was 



Origin, Growth,, and Political History 41 

called the Episcopal or Established church. Severe laws 
were passed against the Catholic church, and since then no 
public money has been used for its support in England. 
The Episcopal church was made the state church and was 
supported by public money the same as the Catholic church 
before had been. It was not long before several new 
churches were organized, but the members of these and 
also of the Catholic church were often persecuted and 
arrested, and many of them were executed. The members 
of one of these new churches were called Puritans. 

44. Charter of the London Company Annulled. — The 
Puritans got control of the London Company in 16 19. 
James I, who was then king of England, disliked the 
Puritans, and was unwilling that the people of either Eng- 
land or Virginia should have any part in the making of laws 
or in the voting of taxes. Because of his opposition to the 
Puritans, in 1624 James had the courts of England annul 
the charter of the London Company. After this he ap- 
pointed the governors of Virginia, but the colonists still 
elected the House of Burgesses which helped to make the 
laws. Soon after the charter was annulled, James died and 
Charles I became king of England. Charles quarreled a 
great deal with the people of England about their rights to 
make the laws and vote taxes. Finally the quarrel led to 
war, the king's forces were defeated, and in 1649 he was 
beheaded. During the next eleven years England had no 
king. Cromwell, one of the leaders in the war against the 
king, and Parliament, which represented the people, ruled 
England. These religious troubles and the opposition of 
the English people to their kings were very important to 
America because they affected the government and the 
welfare of the people not only in Virginia, but in other 
English colonies. 



42 The Thirteen Colonies 

45. Quarrels between the People and the Royal Governors. 

— During nearly all the time from 1624 to 1776, the gov- 
ernors of Virginia were appointed by the kings of England. 
During a part of this period there was bitter conten- 
tion between the kings and the people of England as to 
whether the latter should have any voice in law-making. 
The kings wished to rule England without the assistance 
of a legislative body elected by the people. As the royal 
governors of Virginia were appointed by these kings and 
represented their ideas and wishes, they were opposed to 
the House of Burgesses and did not wish it to assist in 
making the laws for that colony. The people of Virginia, 
however, insisted that the House of Burgesses should help 
make the laws under which they lived, and during most of 
this time it was the real source of power and the head of 
the government. But the constant trouble between the 
people and the royal governors over these questions tended 
to cause the colonists to lose their love and respect for Eng- 
land, which they fondly called the " Mother Country." As 
these same conditions existed in many of the other colonies, 
the acts of the royal governors who represented the kings 
caused the people to become more and more careful in 
guarding their rights against the attacks of the home 
government. All these things helped to bring about the 
conditions that caused the Revolution. 

46. Sir William Berkeley ; the English Cavaliers. — One 
of the most important of the royal governors of Virginia 
was Sir William Berkeley. He was governor from 1642 
to 1652, and from 1659 to 1676. Between the two periods 
of Berkeley's governorship, Cromwell and the English 
Parliament ruled England, and during most of this time 
the Virginians elected their own governors and enjoyed 
a large degree of independence. Berkeley's long rule in 



Origin, Growth, and Political History 43 



Virginia was noted especially for two things : the large 
immigration of English cavaliers who had been friends 
of Charles I, — the king beheaded by Cromwell, — and the 
steady opposition maintained to the rights of the people, 
leading to Bacon's Rebellion in 1676. During the twenty- 
one years beginning with Puritan rule in England (1649) 
the population of Virginia increased from fifteen thousand 
to forty thousand. 
Most of those who 
came over during 
this period had been 
friends of the dead 
king and were rich 
and well educated. 
Among these were 
the ancestors of 
George Washington 
and others who be- 
came famous in the 
American Revolu- 
tion. Many secured 
extensive estates, 
and they and their 
descendants made 
up a large part of 
the country gentle- 
men in Virginia. 

47. Bacon's Re- 
bellion. — After Sir 

William Berkeley 

. e Quarrel between Bacon and Berkeley 

became governor of 

Virginia the second time his rule grew very oppressive. 

For fourteen years the people were not permitted to elect 




44 The Thirteen Colonies 

a new House of Burgesses. In 1676 the Indians began to 
burn houses and to murder people on the frontier. As 
Governor Berkeley refused to raise an army to protect 
the settlers, Nathaniel Bacon, an honest, brave, and popu- 
lar young man, gathered a small force for this purpose. 
Berkeley declared him a rebel and for four months there was 
some fighting between the forces of the governor and those 
under Bacon. Berkeley was driven out of Jamestown and 
it was burned. Soon after this Bacon died, and the men 
under him dispersed to their homes. Berkeley executed 
twenty-three of the leading men who took part in the rebel- 
lion. For this he was removed by the king and another 
governor was appointed. The only important result of 
Bacon's Rebellion was to arouse the people of Virginia 
against the oppressive rule of the royal governors and to 
cultivate in them the spirit of independence. The rule of the 
royal governors who succeeded Berkeley was also oppressive 
and tended to develop still more the spirit of independence 
and opposition. 

Maryland 

48. Origin and Growth in Population. — In the year 1632 
King Charles I granted to George Calvert, Lord Balti- 
more, a tract of land which included the present states 
of Maryland and Delaware, together with small strips of 
southern Pennsylvania and northern Virginia. The main 
object which Lord Baltimore had in view when he founded 
the colony was to provide a home for the Catholics of Eng- 
land. They were being persecuted, and he hoped that in 
Maryland they would be able to enjoy the exercise of 
their religion without interference. It was his sincere desire 
that in Maryland every one, so long as he was a good 
citizen, should be permitted to live in peace regardless of 



Origin, Growth, and Political History 45 



his religious ideas or to what church he might belong. 
Two hundred colonists came over in 1634 and founded the 
town of St. Mary's, near the mouth of the Potomac. By 
1688 the popu- 
lation of the 
colony had in- 
creased to about 
twenty-five thou- 
sand, and by 
1775 to about 
two hundred and 
fifty thousand. 

49. Nature of 
the Government. 
— The charter 
granted by King 
Charles to Lord 
Baltimore and 
his heirs vested 
in them great 
authority over 
the new colony. 
They possessed 
authority almost equal to that enjoyed by the English king, 
but the people of the colony were to have the right to assist 
in making the laws. No law could be enacted without their 
consent, and during the entire history of this colony the 
people had a large share in the government. At first they 
all came together to consider laws and taxation, but soon 
they elected a legislative body which attended to these 
affairs for them. While there were disagreements several 
times between the people and Lord Baltimore and his 
heirs regarding laws and taxes, these disputes were usually 
settled without much trouble. 



.-"■•■' "''■■ •'' -W-. v. .', "• "•■„. ..<;,«;; a 


Hflfli 


' 1111^*1111^''' 


<B® 


fe ^ « i 




uL a 




m IP f : : ^ 




K - JM^ : 


jam 


Ik Jtr ^ 


wBmBk 


Safe'' m&* .' k ; .JB» 




^HBhjJHkD'Ij v;'*jp'' 









George Calvert, Lord Baltimore 



46 The Thirteen Colonies 

50. Invasion of Claiborne. — Most of the political his- 
tory of Maryland during colonial times is closely related 
to contentions and disputes among opposing religious 
factions. Before King Charles I granted Maryland to 
Lord Baltimore, William Claiborne, a Virginian, had set- 
tled on a little island in Chesapeake Bay. He tried to 
prevent the colonists whom Lord Baltimore had sent over 
from making a settlement, but was himself forced to 
return to Virginia. During the next ten years a large 
number of Puritans settled in the new colony. They 
wished to get control of the government in order to oppress 
the Catholics. Claiborne, with some other Virginians, 
invaded Maryland and with the assistance of these dis- 
affected Puritans secured control of the government, but 
he was soon driven out. In 1654 they were again success- 
ful in overthrowing the government. Cromwell made a 
careful investigation of the matter, and, though himself a 
Puritan, decided that the colony belonged to the Baltimore 
family. The clergy and members of the Episcopal church 
were also opposed to the Catholics. They made several 
attempts to seize the government, and in 1689 were success- 
ful. At this time there were severe laws in England 
against Catholics, and these resulted in the charter 
being annulled. From 1692 to 1714 the governors of 
Maryland were appointed by the king, but when at this 
latter date the fourth Lord Baltimore became a Protestant, 
his rights were acknowledged, and his family retained 
control of the government until the colonies became the 
United States. 

North and South Carolina 

51. Origin and Growth in Population. — In 1663 King 
Charles II granted the territory between Virginia and 



Origin, Growth, and Political History 47 

Florida to eight of his friends, among whom were Sir 
William Berkeley, the Duke of Albemarle, the Earl of 
Clarendon, and the Earl of Shaftesbury. Before this 
charter was issued a few English colonists had made 
a settlement on Albemarle Sound, and these were soon 
joined by others. The first settlement in South Carolina 
was made on the southern side of Charleston harbor in 
1670, and ten years later Charleston was founded. Other 
settlements were soon made in both North and South 
Carolina, the most important being around Charleston and 
on the Cape Fear River. But during the first thirty-five 
years the growth in population was not rapid. At first 
South Carolina was the more populous, the settlements 
around Charleston in 1682 having a population of about 
three thousand. At the close of the seventeenth century 
the population began to increase more rapidly. In 1775 
there were about two hundred thousand people living in 
North Carolina and about one hundred and eighty thousand 
in South Carolina. 

52. Character of the Colonists. — The colonists of both 
North Carolina and South Carolina came from various 
nations and were members of a number of different 
churches. French, Scotch, and Germans formed a large 
part of the population. Many came to these two colo- 
nies because they were persecuted at home on account 
of their religious ideas. Quakers, Baptists, and Catholics 
came from England and Virginia in order to escape 
religious persecutions; a large number of Huguenots came 
from France for the same reason ; and many Scotch 
Presbyterians, who could no longer stand the persecution 
at home, came to these colonies to make new homes for 
themselves and their families. The men and women who 
composed this mixed population represented strength and 



48 The Thirteen Colonies 

determination. They were willing to suffer in order to 
maintain their right to enjoy their- religious and political 
ideas. 

53. Religious Dissensions ; Changes in Government. — 
Now, it so happened that the proprietors to whom the 
king had granted these two colonies belonged to the 
Church of England, and they were opposed to the members 
of these other churches taking any part in making laws or 
voting taxes. As most of the people did not belong to the 
Church of England, there was constant trouble between 
them and the governors who were appointed by the 
proprietors. The people in both colonies soon secured 
the right to elect legislative bodies. There were frequent 
disagreements with some of the governors, but the peo- 
ple insisted on making the laws. Governor Sothel, who 
attempted to deprive them of this right, was driven from 
the colonies. In 1 719 South Carolina again deposed her 
governor. This determination on the part of the people 
to maintain their religious and political rights led frequently 
to great disorder, and sometimes there was scarcely any 
government at all, this being true especially in North 
Carolina. Because of these frequent and serious disorders 
the charter was annulled in 1729; North and South 
Carolina each became a royal province, and until 1776 the 
governors were appointed by the king. 

Georgia 

54. Origin and Growth in Population. — When, as just 
mentioned, South Carolina became a royal province, the 
Savannah River was made its southern boundary, and the 
territory south of this river and north of Florida (the latter 
belonged to Spain) was reserved for a new colony. In 




? (Ft.Pitt) *i %#™ \ " ., ■ 

PJ?E N Nt S Y#L V\A N I 

VflufiinjftOnS 

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W/ W ^Charlottesville ^gVan^. 
,** /' _H>^* /,„ Pet.r»..«r K .; -£v^ U 

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Hills!). 
/Guiir.mlC.H. = 



EilSitou 



^\g r V h '\n'o l^i N^A^;vaj\ 




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G E A N 



" MAP OF THE 

SOUTHERN COLONIES 

Jl ST HEKORE THE 
FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 



l'JO 160 

B. i CO.,N.V. 



Origin, Growth, and Political History 49 



England, at that time, the man who could not pay his 
debts was put in prison and kept there, until he found 
some way to satisfy his creditors. James Oglethorpe, who 
was an English army officer and a member of Parliament, 
investigated the conditions 
of the debtors in the prisons. 
He found these conditions 
very bad, and in his desire 
to do something for these 
prisoners conceived the 
idea of making homes for 
them in America. In order 
to -accomplish this, he in- 
duced King George II to 
grant to him and twenty 
other men the English terri- 
tory south of the Savannah. 
55. Founding of Savan- 
nah and Augusta. — For 
the purpose of assisting the 
debtors to pay their debts and to get another start in the 
new colony, which was called Georgia, some rich men gave 
money, and Parliament voted about fifty thousand dollars. 
Oglethorpe was appointed governor, and in 1733 he with 
thirty-five families made the first settlement in the last 
English colony to be established in America, by founding 
the city of Savannah. Augusta was founded the next year, 
and five years later another settlement was made at the 
mouth of the Altamaha. The colony at first was not pros- 
perous. In 1752 there were less than five thousand people 
living in Georgia, but from this time on the population 
increased more rapidly and had reached about seventy- 
five thousand in 1775. 




Oglethorpe 



50 The Thirteen Colonies 

56. Nature of the Government. — The charter of the 
colony placed the government entirely in the hands of the 
proprietors, and the colonists were permitted to have but 
very small share in making the laws under which they 
lived. The charter provided also that there should be 
complete religious liberty, except for Catholics, and that 
all foreigners should have equal civil and political rights 
with Englishmen. A number of Scotch and German 
settlers came to the new colony. The people of South 
Carolina were very glad to have this colony south of them. 
They had been having considerable trouble with the Spanish 
in Florida, and the founding of Georgia served as a pro- 
tection against Spanish attacks. From now on for a 
number of years, Georgia had to bear the brunt of such 
attacks. Oglethorpe made a splendid military governor. 
He invaded Florida, and the Spaniards in turn invaded 
Georgia, and made an assault on Frederica by land and 
sea. They could not capture the town, and the arrival of 
English vessels caused them to return to Florida. When 
Oglethorpe returned to England in 1743, the condition 
of affairs in the colony grew worse and worse. In 1752 
Georgia was made a royal province, and from this time on, 
until the Revolution, it became more and more prosperous. 



THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 

Origin and Growth in Population 

57. Origin of Puritans and Separatists. — In 1528 Pope 
Clement VII refused to grant King Henry VIII of England 
a divorce from his wife Catherine. This displeased King 
Henry very much, because he wished to marry Anne Boleyn, 
one of Catherine's maids. In order to accomplish this 



Origin, Growth, and Political History 51 

he induced Parliament to pass a statute which declared 
that he and not the pope should be considered the head 
of the Catholic church in England. King Henry had 
defended the pope and had written pamphlets against 
Martin Luther and others, who opposed the Catholic church 
and its teachings. He therefore had no desire to make 
many changes in the doctrines and forms of the church, 
but merely wished to overthrow the pope's power in Eng- 
land, and to assume that power himself, in order to divorce 
his wife and to carry out other plans unhampered by the 
pope. But the reform could not be checked. The act of 
Parliament which declared that the pope was no longer 
head of the church in England served to cause the rapid 
growth of this opposition. Henry tried to prevent any 
radical changes in the church itself, but was not entirely 
successful. Each year the number opposed to the church, 
as it then existed, increased. 

58. The Episcopal Church and the Reformers. — As a 
result of this opposition, the Catholic church in England 
was changed considerably, and has since been known as 
the Episcopal or Established church. It was not changed 
enough, however, to suit many of the reformers. Some 
of those dissatisfied desired to remain in the Established 
church, but wished to reform or purify its creeds and 
ceremonies. These were called Puritans. Others more 
strongly opposed to the doctrines and forms of the church 
desired to, and did, withdraw or separate from it. These 
were called Separatists. The Puritans succeeded in secur- 
ing some changes in the Established church, but not enough 
to suit them, and within a little more than one hundred 
years after Parliament declared Henry VIII the head of 
the Church of England, some of the Puritans as well as 
the Separatists had withdrawn from this church, and had 
formed a church of their own. 



52 The Thirteen Colonies 

59. Persecution of the Puritans and the Separatists. — 
Those opposed to the Established church were not per- 
mitted to withdraw peacefully and establish separate 
churches not under the authority of the king. In many 
cases their property was taken from them, they were 
sent to jail, and the leaders were put to death. At first 
the Puritans, as well as the members of the Established 
church, assisted in the persecution of the Separatists, 
but it was not long before the Puritans themselves were 
severely persecuted. In order to escape this treatment, 
and to be free to worship God as they desired, a number 
of the Separatists escaped from England in 1607 and set- 
tled in Holland. Many Puritans joined this band, and by 
1 619 the number of exiles settled at Leyden amounted to 
more than one thousand. These men and women did not 
wish to remain in Holland, because they were afraid that 
their children would acquire the speech, habits, and man- 
ners of the Dutch. They wished to find a place where 
they might live and worship in peace and yet remain 
British subjects in British territory. They knew of the 
success of the Jamestown colony and decided that the New 
World was an excellent place to establish a permanent- 
home for themselves and their children. 

60. The Founding of the Plymouth Colony. — In 1620, 
after some trouble in securing permission from the London 
Company and the necessary money from English mer- 
chants, about one hundred of these Separatists, called 
Pilgrims on account of their wanderings, sailed in the 
Mayflower for New Jersey. Instead of landing on the 
New Jersey coast, they came in sight of land off the shore 
of Cape Cod, Massachusetts, and landed December 21, 
1620. In 1606 King James, as has already been stated, 
granted the Plymouth Company, which was a branch of the 



Origin, Growth, and Political History 53 

great Virginia Company, all the land between Long Island 
and Nova Scotia. As the Plymouth Company had failed 
to make a settlement in this territory as stipulated in the 
charter, it had lost its legal right to the same. In 1620, 
however, members of the company succeeded in securing 
a new patent. This new Plymouth Company, also known 
as the Council for New England, was composed of forty 




The Landing of the Pilgrims 

members. When the Pilgrims landed in Massachusetts, 
therefore, they were in the territory of the Plymouth Com- 
pany and not of the London Company from which they 
had secured the right to settle in the New World. But 
they had no trouble in securing the right from the Plym- 
outh Company to settle in Massachusetts. On December 
21 they landed and founded the colony of Plymouth. The 
first winter was a severe one and more than one half of the 
colonists died of cold, hunger, and disease. However, in 



54 The Thirteen Colonies 

the face of all discouragements, these men and women 
clung to their new home persistently. In 1630 the colony 
contained only three hundred persons, in 1640 about three 
thousand, and in 1670 it had reached eight thousand. 

61. Founding of Massachusetts Bay Colony. — The Plym- 
outh colony had a humble origin and a slow growth. 
For ten years after Plymouth was settled it looked as 
though the growth of New England would be slow and 
feeble indeed. But conditions in England were soon to 
change all this. Charles I became king in 1625. He 
was strongly opposed to the Puritans and to the liberal 
and constitutional form of government for which they 
stood. On the second day of March, 1629, the king 
broke up the session of Parliament and sent some of its 
members to prison. The Puritans saw that they must 
fight in England and thus bring on a civil war, or submit 
to the tyranny of the king, or leave the country. Many 
decided to remain in England and wait for a favorable 
opportunity openly to oppose the king ; others decided to 
emigrate to New England. 

In 1628 some of the leading Puritans purchased from the 
Plymouth or New England Company a large tract of land 
in Massachusetts lying between the Charles and the Merri- 
mac rivers, and extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific. 
Soon afterward a small party of Puritans, led by John 
Endicott, settled at a place called Naumkeag, and changed 
the name to Salem. In 1629 the king granted to the men 
who had purchased this tract of land a charter, which cre- 
ated a corporation called the Governor and Company of 
Massachusetts Bay. During the same year about four 
hundred emigrants crossed to this territory and settled at 
Salem, thus making it larger than Plymouth, which had 
been founded nine years before. During 1630 more than 



Origin, Growth, and Political History 55 

one thousand Puritans came to New England and settled 
the towns of Charlestown, Boston, Roxbury, Dorchester, 
Watertown, and New Town (later called Cambridge). By 
1635 the number of colonists in the different settlements 
in Massachusetts amounted to about five thousand. 

62. The Founding of Connecticut. — The colony of Mas- 
sachusetts had the distinction of being the parent of the 
other New England colonies, with the exception of Maine. 
This is especially true in the case of Connecticut. In 
163 1 a grant of land along the valley of the Connecticut 
River had been obtained from the New England Com- 
pany by Lord Brooks and by Lord Saye and Sele, but 
no attempt at colonization was made at that time. The 
early settlers of this territory all came from the Massachu- 
setts colonies, which they left because they were not satisfied 
with the religious and political conditions there. The first 
settlement was made in 1633, by a small party from 
Plymouth. Two years later emigrants from near Boston 
came into the new country, and in 1636 Hartford was 
founded. Massachusetts at first held control over these 
settlements, but in 1633 they united under the name of 
Connecticut, and set up an independent government. 

63. The Founding of New Haven. — In 1637 a congrega- 
tion of Puritans, composed of wealthy London merchants 
and their families, arrived in Boston. Not being entirely 
satisfied with the religious conditions there, and desiring to 
establish a government that should be more closely con- 
nected with the church than that of the Massachusetts Bay 
colony, they left in the spring and founded the town of 
New Haven, near the mouth of the Connecticut River. 
By 1640 settlers from this town, from England, and from 
the Massachusetts Bay colony had founded the towns of 
Milford, Guilford, and Stamford. These four towns united 



56 



The Thirteen Colonies 



in 1643 and formed the colony of New Haven. Afterward 
the towns of Southold and Branford joined the colony. 

64. New Haven annexed to Connecticut. — The Connecti- 
cut and New Haven colonies kept up a separate existence 
for many years, but in the year 1662 Connecticut obtained 

a royal charter which annexed to 
her the New Haven colony. New 
Haven objected strongly to being 
absorbed in this way, but was 
forced to give up her independ- 
ence. The united colony pros- 
pered, and its advance in wealth 
and population was rapid. By the 
time of the Revolution, Connec- 
ticut contained about two hundred 
thousand inhabitants. 

65. The Founding of Rhode Is- 
land. — The settlement of Rhode 
Island was due largely to religious 
and political troubles existing in 
Massachusetts. In 163 1 Roger 
Williams, a young Puritan min- 
ister, came to Massachusetts and 
began to preach doctrines in 
regard to the church and govern- 
ment that were much disliked by 
the leaders of the colony. He 
was regarded as dangerous to the 
peace of the colony, and was therefore banished. He took 
refuge a few miles south of the Massachusetts line, and in 
1636 bought a tract of land from the Indians and founded a 
small settlement which he named Providence. Two years 
later the General Court of Massachusetts banished Anne 




SlifP 
Roger Williams 

Statue by Franklin Simmons, 
at Providence, R.I. 



Origin, Growth, and Political History $7 

Hutchinson for the same reasons for which it had banished 
Roger Williams. She and her followers purchased the 
island Aquednok, or Rhode Island, and made a settlement 
called Portsmouth. In 1639 this settlement divided, and 
Newport was founded on another part of the island. The 
town of Warwick was established later by Samuel Gorton, 
a follower of Anne Hutchinson, who roused great strife 
wherever he went, being banished from several settlements. 

66. Union of Towns. — In 1647 these separate towns 
along the shores of Narragansett Bay were united under 
the title of Providence Plantations. This name was changed 
later to Rhode Island. The growth of the colony was 
very slow for the first ten years on account of the religious 
and political disturbances. After this period it grew more 
rapidly, and at the time of the Revolution had over fifty 
thousand inhabitants. 

67. Early History of New Hampshire. — The earliest set- 
tlements in the territory later known as New Hampshire 
were two trading posts at Dover and Portsmouth, estab- 
lished in 1623 by John Mason and Sir Ferdinand Gorges. 
These men had obtained from the New England Company 
a large grant of land along the coast in the northern part 
of New England. Their grant was divided later, and one 
part went to Gorges as Maine, the other to Mason as New 
Hampshire. The boundaries were uncertain and caused 
trouble later. At the time Anne Hutchinson was banished 
from Massachusetts many of her followers went to New 
Hampshire and established the towns of Exeter and 
Hampton. All the towns in this territory were independ- 
ent settlements, and their quarrels among themselves be- 
came so harmful to their growth and prosperity that in 
1641 they allowed Massachusetts to incorporate them 
under her laws. They remained in this relation for thirty 



58 The Thirteen Colonies 

years, when King Charles II made New Hampshire a 
separate province and placed it directly under the control 
of the crown. 

68. Settlement of Maine. — Little attention was paid to 
the other part of this territory by its proprietor, Gorges. 
Only two small settlements were founded by him, but later 
independent towns sprang up. After his death several 
claimants to this territory appeared, and Massachusetts 
was asked to settle the matter. She did this by dividing 
the territory into three parts, one for each claimant. This 
was in 1649, and in the nine years following the three 
parts separately became annexed to Massachusetts. 

Government in Early New England 

69. The Virginian — Church and State. — A large portion 
of the settlers of the southern colonies did not come to the 
New World in order to escape from religious persecution. 
They belonged to the Episcopal or Established Church of 
England, and therefore were under the protection of the 
government in religious matters. They came to the New 
World for the sake of adventure, and more especially 
because they could make a better living for themselves 
and their children. They were thorough believers in the 
civil and political liberty which Englishmen enjoyed, and 
they and their descendants were as stout in the defense 
of those rights in the struggle with the English kings, 
which ended in the Revolution, as were the people of 
New England. 

70. The Puritan — Church and State. — The colonists of 
New England, unlike those of Virginia, came to America 
mainly because of religious persecution in England. Many 
of them were men of wealth and were graduates f the 



Origin, Growth, and Political History 59 

English universities of Oxford and Cambridge. They 
planned and established a state based on Puritan ideas 
of religion and government. This does not mean that the 
Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay colonies were places 
where religious liberty existed. The Puritans persecuted 
those who preached any doctrine other than Puritanism 
just as severely as they themselves had been persecuted in 
England. They united the church and state. The laws 
provided that no one should vote or hold an office of any 
kind unless he were a member of a Puritan church or con- 
gregation. This form of government, where the church 
and state are thus connected, is known as a Theocracy. 

71. Puritan Ideas of Government; Local Government. 
— The Puritans were among those who most bitterly op- 
posed the attempts of the English king to make and 
execute laws without the sanction of Parliament, or a 
body of men representing the people. Charles I broke 
up Parliament on Monday, March 2, 1629, and two days 
later granted the charter to the Massachusetts Bay Com- 
pany. The Puritans under that charter at once organized 
in Massachusetts the kind of government for which they 
had been contending against the king in England. The 
Puritan emigration to the Massachusetts Bay colony was 
so large that it called for the immediate organization of 
a definite form of government. As a rule, the Puritans 
came over in congregations led by their pastors, and not 
as individuals, as was the case in the southern colonies. 
Each congregation established a small town, and the citi- 
zens, that is, the church members, met at the meeting- 
house (usually the first public building erected in these 
colonies) or in the town hall, arid elected the town officers 
and decided all the more important questions affecting the 
welfare of the town. 



60 The Thirteen Colonies 

72. Government in Early New England. — The charter 
of the Massachusetts Bay colony provided for the election 
of a governor and deputy governor to hold office for one 
year, and for the election of a committee of eighteen mem- 
bers, called assistants, to hold office from year to year un- 
less removed. These officers were to meet at least once 
each year, and when thus assembled were called the Gen- 
eral Court. The charter contained no provision which 
required the members of the company to keep the seat 
of government in England. The leading members of the 
company at once decided to hold all the meetings of the 
company in America. Thus in 1629, before the first large 
immigration, the government of the colony was transferred 
from England to America. 

73. Rights of Englishmen Demanded. — It was not long 
before the colonists demanded the rights of Englishmen. In 
1 63 1 the governor and assistants wished to construct forts 
and make other preparations against a possible attack by 
the Indians. They needed about three hundred dollars for 
this purpose, and in order to raise it levied a tax on the 
different towns or settlements. The people of VVatertown 
objected to paying their share of this tax, because they 
claimed that Englishmen could not be compelled to pay 
taxes unless they assisted in levying them. This protest 
of the people of Watertown led to the election of delegates 
or representatives by each town. In a few years delegates 
thus elected met in a separate legislative body and soon 
secured more power in making the laws and governing the 
colony than the assistants or governor. Thus it will be 
seen that from the very first the people of New England 
insisted, as did the people of the southern colonies, on the 
right to help make the laws under which they lived. This 
was nothing new for Englishmen. The English colonists 



Origin, Growth, and Political History 61 

in America were simply demanding the same rights which 
they had enjoyed while in England. Charles I was trying 
to deprive the people of England of these rights, and 
about eighteen years later the English people defeated his 
armies and beheaded him. 

74. Government in Plymouth was much the same in 
character as that in the Massachusetts Bay colony which 
has been described. The government of Plymouth at first 
was a pure democracy, that is, all the citizens met- and 
voted on all questions of general importance. A governor 
was elected annually, and also seven assistants. It was 
the duty of these officers to carry out the will of the people 
as expressed at these town meetings. As the colony in- 
creased in population it became inconvenient for all the 
freemen to vote on all measures, and there came to exist 
an assembly composed of delegates elected by the people 
of each town. This body was the most important part of 
the government. 

75. Government in Rhode Island, Connecticut, and New 
Haven. — The same form of government existed in Rhode 
Island and Connecticut. Before the New Haven colony 
was annexed to Connecticut, in 1622, the church had more 
control of the government than in even the Massachusetts 
Bay colony. None but church members could vote or 
have any share in the government, and it was made diffi- 
cult for any one to become a member of the church. In 
Rhode Island and Connecticut the church and state were 
entirely separated — a man's religious beliefs had nothing 
to do with his duties as a citizen, or with the part he might 
take in the government. In one respect Connecticut was 
different from all the other New England colonies. It 
had a written constitution, made and adopted by the 
people. This constitution provided for the same kind of 



62 The Thirteen Colonies 

government: that existed in Massachusetts, except that a 
man's religious beliefs should have nothing to do with his 
privileges as a citizen. 

76. The People Controlled Law-making. — In 1640 the 
population of New England was about twenty-six thousand. 
As has been stated above, government in all the New 
England colonies was essentially the same in character, 
the only important difference being that the church had 
more to do with the government in some than in others. 
The citizens of each town met and elected their town offi- 
cers and decided by direct vote the more important ques- 
tions affecting the welfare of the town. They also elected 
delegates to the assembly, the law-making body in each 
colony. In the Massachusetts Bay colony the assistants, 
a committee whose members held office from year to year, 
helped to make the laws, but no law could be passed un- 
less a majority of the delegates elected by the people voted 
for it. Thus it will be seen that the people in each of the 
New England colonies governed themselves subject to the 
laws of England, and that each colony was independent of 
the others. 

77. New England Confederacy Formed. — There were 
conditions in early New England which might at any time 
require the colonies to act together. An attack by the 
Dutch in New York, by the French in Canada, or by 
the Indians would require the united action of all the 
New England colonies. In order to be ready if any such 
occasion should arise, the colonies of Massachusetts Bay, 
Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven formed in 1643 
what they called " The United Colonies of New England," 
but which is better known as the New England Confed- 
eracy. Rhode Island several times asked permission to 
join this Confederacy, but was refused. The reasons for 



Origin, Growth, and Political History 63 

this refusal were the lack of a stable government in Rhode 
Island, and a dislike of her by the other colonies because 
she received and protected those who had been banished 
from or had left the other colonies because of religious or 
political ideas. 

78. Nature of the Confederacy. — The Confederation was 
not a real union of the colonies, but a mere agreement 
among them to act together on certain general questions 
which affected the interests of all the colonies. The articles 
or written agreement drawn up provided for the election of 
eight commissioners, two from each of the four colonies, 
thus making the colonies equally represented in the Con- 
federation. The commissioners were to have entire con- 
trol of all the questions which might arise between the 
colonies and the Indians or a foreign power. All ex- 
penses incurred were to be apportioned among the colo- 
nies according to population, but the manner of raising 
this money was left to each colony. The commissioners 
dealt with the government of each colony, that is, with the 
governor and legislative bodies, and not directly with the 
people of the Confederacy. A colony could comply with 
the requests of the commissioners or refuse if it so desired. 
If the commissioners could not agree on a question, they 
could refer it to the colonies for settlement. As the com- 
missioners had no power to enforce the acts which they 
might pass, their government was in fact simply advisory. 

79. Massachusetts Dissatisfied ; Value of the Confed- 
eracy. — The New England Confederacy lasted for forty- 
one years, from 1643 to 1684. The lack of real power 
made it a weak form of union, and in this respect it 
closely resembled the government under the Articles of 
Confederation during the latter part of, and immediately 
after, the Revolutionary War. The Massachusetts Bay 



64 The Thirteen Colonies 

colony was especially dissatisfied with the Confederacy. 
While she had six thousand more inhabitants than the 
other three colonies combined, and therefore paid more 
taxes for the support of the Confederacy than all the 
others, she had no more power in the management of the 
government than any one of them. Legally, she had no 
right to complain, for she knew all these things when she 
entered the Confederacy, but it was only natural that she 
should be inclined to assume more power in deciding ques- 
tions than the other colonies. Her attitude toward them 
was sometimes overbearing and created bitter feeling. But 
with all its faults the Confederacy was of great value to 
New England, especially during the war with the Indians, 
1675-1678. It was also of value to all the English colonies 
in America, as it served to prepare men's minds for unity 
of action a hundred years later, when a union among all 
the colonies became absolutely necessary in order that the 
colonists might maintain their rights against the despotic 
policy of the English king. 

Relations of the English with the Indians 

80. The Indians and the Puritans. — Up to about 1635 
the people of the New England colonies were not troubled 
or interfered with seriously by the Indians. This good 
fortune was due largely to the fact that nearly all the In- 
dians who lived in the country where the Pilgrims and the 
Puritans first settled in Massachusetts had been carried off 
by an epidemic a short time before the Pilgrims landed. 
Not only did this leave the country around Plymouth and 
Boston unoccupied, but the Indians thought the disease 
came among them as a punishment because they had killed 
a few white fishermen several years before. In the spring 



Origin, Growth, and Political History 65 

of 162 1, a few months after the Pilgrims landed, they made 
a treaty and alliance with Massasoit, who was the chief of 
the Wampanoags, a tribe of Indians that lived near by. 
This treaty was kept faithfully for more than fifty years 
by both the English and the Indians. While no treaty 
of peace was made with any of the Indian tribes that lived 
farther inland, they did not molest the English until almost 
fifteen years later, when the first settlements were being 
made in Connecticut along the Connecticut River. This 
friendly attitude of the Indians was most fortunate. The 
settlement of Plymouth was small, and a serious attack by 
the Indians at any time during the years between the land- 
ing of the Pilgrims at Plymouth in 1620 and the settlement 
of Massachusetts Bay colony by the large immigration of 
Puritans in 1629- 1630, might have resulted in the total 
destruction of all the English in New England. 

81. The Pequod War : Origin. — From the very nature 
of things, however, the friendly relations existing between 
the English and the Indians in New England could 
not long continue. If the English continued to come 
and to settle the country farther inland, it would not be 
long until all the Indians in New England would be 
forced to seek other homes. The Indians felt from the 
first that the coming of the English was an intrusion 
on their domain and rights ; but fear of the white man 
kept them from making an open attack. Contact with the 
English tended to lessen this fear. In 1633 eight English 
traders while going up the Connecticut River were mur- 
dered by Indians, members of the Pequod tribe which in- 
habited the territory along the Thames River. Sassacus, 
chief of this tribe, promised to deliver the murderers to the 
government at Boston, but neglected to do so. In 1636 
some Indians on Block Island, who were subject to the 



66 



The Thirteen Colonies 



Narragansetts living opposite on the mainland, mur- 
dered John Oldham, a trader, and captured his vessel. 
Governor Vane of Massachusetts at once sent a messenger 
to the chief of the Narragansetts, but the chief claimed not 
to have had anything to do with the murder, placing the en- 
tire blame on the Block Is- 
land Indians. The governor 
sent a body of men under 
Endicott, which destroyed 
the wigwams and property of 
the Indians on Block Island. 
Endicott then crossed to the 
mainland and attacked the 
Pequods for the murder of 
the eight traders four years 
before, killing a number of 
them. In retaliation the Pe- 
quods at once began to kill 
the English in the smaller 
John endicott settlements in Connecticut, 

torturing their victims and even roasting one man alive. 

82. Colonists prepare for War. — These acts were very 
serious and dangerous for the English, and compelled 
them to prepare immediately for war. The towns in the 
Connecticut Valley raised about ninety men and placed 
them under the command of Captain John Mason, who 
had made an excellent record in the wars of Holland. 
Massachusetts contributed twenty men under John Under- 
bill. These were joined by about five hundred Indians 
belonging to the Narragansett, Nyantic, and Mohegan 
tribes. 

83. Destruction of the Pequods. — Most of the Pequods, 
about seven hundred, had taken shelter in their fortified 




Origin, Growth, and Political History 67 

village near the mouth of the Thames. Mason led his men 
directly against this stronghold and made a night attack. 
The friendly Indians with Mason hated the Pequods be- 
cause they had been forced to pay tribute to them for a 
number of years or be destroyed by the Pequod warriors. 
Notwithstanding this hatred, they were so terrified by the 
power of the Pequods that they were afraid that the Eng- 
lish could not defeat them, and in fear dropped behind 
as Mason approached the fort, and gave no assistance in 
the attack. The Pequods were completely surprised. The 
English set the village on fire by throwing firebrands among 
the wigwams, and killed those who attempted to escape. 
But five succeeded in getting away. All the rest, about 
seven hundred, were either shot or burned to death in the 
village. The few remaining members of the tribe not in 
the fort were either killed or forced to join the other tribes. 
Thus in less than an hour the Pequod nation was destroyed. 
The Pequods had ruled over and terrified the Indians in 
New England for years. Their very name was feared by 
the other tribes. 

84. Effect on Indians of New England. — The total de- 
struction of this powerful nation by a mere handful of 
English soldiers served as a terrible example to the other 
Indians of New England. They had never seen anything 
like this before. The important result was that the Eng- 
lish were safe from attacks for nearly forty years. Not 
until another generation had grown up did the Indians 
venture to make another attack on the English. 

85. Treatment of the Indians by the Puritans. — While 
the Puritans were very severe in their treatment of the 
Indians in time of actual warfare, their dealings with them 
before the Pequod War, and from that time until King 
Philip's War in 1675, were, as a rule, honorable, and in 



68 The Thirteen Colonies 

many cases even kind. All the land which they occupied 
except that taken from the Pequods was bought from 
the Indians and paid for scrupulously. A brisk trade 
sprang up between the two races, the Indians exchanging 
furs for English goods. Through the efforts of Dr. Elliott 
and other missionaries, about four thousand Indians were 
converted to the Christian religion and settled in villages. 
Most of these, however, were from the Massachusetts and 
Wampanoag tribes, two of the smallest and weakest in New 
England. The Puritans also endeavored to educate the 
Indians, but their efforts met with little success, although 
one Indian actually graduated from Harvard College in 
1665. 

86. Obstacles to Peace between English and Indians. — 
Under such conditions the people of most races would 
have adopted the civilization of the whites and have settled 
down to an industrious and peaceful life. But the Indian's 
nature was too wild and independent to permit this. The 
Indian and the Puritan did not understand each other. 
The Indians had no conception of what private ownership 
of land meant. They owned their land in common, and 
no uncivilized Indian ever thought of calling a certain piece 
of land his own. If a tribe by treaty or agreement secured 
territory belonging to another tribe, it was understood that 
only the right to hunt and fish was transferred. When 
the Indians sold a piece of land to the Puritans, they did 
not understand that they had forever lost the right to the 
land. They did not realize for a long time that the con- 
stant selling of land would finally compel them to leave 
New England. When the Indians saw and understood 
that the constant increase in the number of English in New 
England meant the loss of country to them, they very 
naturally became unfriendly to the whites. Another thing 



Origin,. Growth, and Political History 69 

that made them dislike the whites was the custom of the 
governments of some of the colonies of calling before them 
the Indian chief of a tribe and demanding of him an 
explanation for some unfriendly or unjust act which was 
supposed to have been committed by himself or members 
of his tribe. To the Indians this looked like subjection, 
and they loved freedom too much .to submit willingly to 
this. 

87. King Philip's War ; Origin. — In 1660 Massasoit, 
chief of the Wampanoag Indians, died. He had been a 
good friend to the English ever since he made the treaty 
with the Pilgrims in 1621. Massasoit left two sons, Alex- 
ander and Philip. Alexander became chief of the tribe. 
The English heard that he was unfriendly, and summoned 
him to appear before the General Court at Plymouth. 
He came, but on his way home suddenly took sick with 
a severe fever and died. His brother Philip, who then 
became chief of the Wampanoags, suspected that the 
English had poisoned Alexander, and he determined to 
have revenge. Philip's tribe was small, but he succeeded 
in securing the assistance of the Narragansetts and the 
Nipmucks, and in 1675, thirty-eight years after the de- 
struction of the Pequods, war again broke out between the 
Indians and the English. 

88. Character of the War. — This war lasted until 1678 
and is known in history as King Philip's War. It was a 
much more serious affair than the trouble with the Pequods 
had been. More than four thousand Indian warriors were 
determined to drive the English from their old hunting 
grounds. The Pequods had had no guns with which to 
fight; but Philip's warriors had succeeded in securing 
muskets from the English, and many of them were excel- 
lent marksmen. 



yo The Thirteen Colonies 

89. The Results of the War were very serious to both 
sides. Out of ninety towns in Massachusetts, twelve were 
totally ruined, forty more were seriously attacked, and much 
property was destroyed. More than a thousand English 
soldiers were killed either in battle or by torture, and many 
women and children were scalped and killed. During the 
three years of the war all New England was in constant fear 
of an Indian attack. The colonies were compelled to incur 
a heavy debt in order to meet the expenses of the war, 
and it was years before this was paid off. The war was 
much harder on the Indians than it was on the English. 
The three tribes engaged in it were almost entirely 
destroyed. King Philip and Canonchet, chief of the 
Narragansetts, and most of the Indian warriors were 
killed. Large numbers of Indian women and children 
also died, some from want of food, but many were killed 
by the English when on Sunday afternoon, December 19, 
1675, they attacked and destroyed the fortified village of 
the Narragansetts and killed a thousand of their warriors. 
At the close of the war the Puritans sold many of the 
Indians into slavery in the West Indies : among those 
thus sold was the young son of King Philip. The com- 
manders of the English forces were usually opposed to this 
policy, but the Puritan ministers were among its strongest 
supporters. 

The end of King Philip's War marks the end of the 
Indian power in New England. This war was a cruel 
and desperate contest between the people of a weak race 
that had owned the soil and the invaders who belonged 
to a stronger and higher civilization. As is usually 
the case, the weaker race and the weaker civilization 
were compelled to give way to the higher and more 
vigorous. 



Origin, Growth, and Political History ji 

Under the Royal Governors 

90. Maine and New Hampshire Grants. — The quarrel 
between the English kings and the Massachusetts Bay 
Company, which resulted in the overthrow of the com- 
pany's charter and government in .1684, began in 1633. 
In 1622 Ferdinando Gorges and John Mason were granted 
all the land extending from the Kennebec River in Maine 
to the Merrimac in Massachusetts. Later they divided 
this territory between them, Gorges taking what is now 
the state of Maine and Mason what is now the state 
of New Hampshire. This grant of land to Mason and 
Gorges is an important fact in the history of Massachu- 
setts. These two men and their heirs frequently com- 
plained to the king that the Massachusetts Bay colony 
was interfering with their rights, and thus gave him an 
excuse for attacking the government of the colony. 

91. Massachusetts Loses her Charter. — As early as 1633 
Mason and Gorges, and some men who had been banished 
from the colony because they opposed the religious and 
political ideas of the Puritans, told the king that the 
people of the Massachusetts Bay colony intended to 
rebel and become independent. As King Charles I 
hated both the religious and the political ideas of the Puri- 
tans, he gladly availed himself of this excuse, and in 1635 
had the English courts annul the charter of the company. 
But Mason died, and Charles got into trouble with the 
English people at home over taxes, so for the time being 
the fight against the government of the Massachusetts 
Bay colony was dropped. In 1638 another demand was 
made on the Massachusetts Bay colony for the surrender 
of her charter. She politely but firmly refused to comply 
with the demand, and as the English people were preparing 



j2 The Thirteen Colonies 

to rebel against the despotic rule of the king at home, no 
army could be sent against the colony to compel obe- 
dience. War broke out in England in 1642 between the 
armies of the king and the armies raised by Parliament. 

92. The Confederacy and the Commonwealth. — When 
the news of the war reached Massachusetts, her public 
officers no longer administered justice in the name of the 
king, nor took the oath of allegiance to him. The next 
year, 1643, the New England Confederacy was formed, 
and from that date until 1649, when the king's armies were 
defeated and he was beheaded, New England was practi- 
cally independent of all outside power. From 1649 to 
1660 Oliver Cromwell and Parliament ruled England with- 
out a king, and during this time New England continued 
to conduct her affairs about as she pleased, with very little 
interference from the home government. Oliver Crom- 
well died in 1658. During his short control of affairs he 
had made England more respected in Europe than it had 
ever been before. After his death the rule of Parliament 
became weak and unpopular. In 1660 Charles II, son of 
Charles I who had been beheaded in 1649, was invited to 
become king. 

93. Quarrels between King Charles II and Massachu- 
setts. — When this news reached New England, the Massa- 
chusetts Bay colony waited three months before sending an 
address to the king, and fifteen months before proclaiming 
him king. In 1662 Charles demanded courteously that all 
public officers take the oath of allegiance to him ; that all 
laws opposed to his authority be repealed ; that all those 
who wished to worship according to the forms of the Epis- 
copal church be permitted to do so ; and that those laws 
which prevented a man from voting because he was not a 
member of the Puritan church be repealed. The colony 



Origin, Growth, and Political History 73 

complied with the first demand and administered justice in 
the king's name, but she did not comply with the other 
three demands. In 1664 England sent over four commis- 
sioners to direct the capture of New York (New Nether- 
land) from the Dutch. These commissioners were also 
directed to investigate conditions in the New England colo- 
nies, and especially to see whether the Massachusetts Bay 
colony was complying with the demands which had been 
made by King Charles. They found everything satisfactory 
in Connecticut and Rhode Island, but the Massachusetts 
Bay colony refused to give them any definite information 
on these points, and finally defied them. The commission- 
ers made a strong report to the king against the colony ; 
but war with Holland and trouble at home compelled him 
to postpone action against Massachusetts until 1675. 

94. Massachusetts' Charter finally Annulled. — The Mas- 
sachusetts Bay colony had annexed New Hampshire and 
Maine. The heirs of the proprietors, Mason and Gorges, 
claimed that this territory belonged to them. In 1675 
Edward Randolph was sent over to investigate these 
claims, to see if the colony was carrying out the demands 
made on her by the king, and to see whether the people 
generally were satisfied with the government of the col- 
ony. The English courts decided that the Massachusetts 
Bay colony had no right to the territory of either New 
Hampshire or Maine. The colony, however, did not in- 
tend to give up any of this territory, neither did it intend 
to permit men not members of the Puritan church to vote, 
or people to worship according to the forms and doctrines 
of the Episcopal church. Randolph reported all these 
things to the king, and stated that the king's orders were 
of no more value in Massachusetts than an article in a 
London newspaper. 



74 



The Thirteen Colonies 



95. New Hampshire becomes a Royal Province; Andros 
appointed Governor of Massachusetts. — This attitude of the 
colony highly provoked King Charles, and he decided to 
compel it to submit. New Hampshire was made a royal 
province, and its governors were appointed by the king 
until 1776. Massachusetts was commanded to remove all 
religious restrictions on the suffrage and to permit the 
Episcopal form of worship. The demands were not com- 
plied with, and in 1684 the charter, which had been granted 
to the Massachusetts Bay colony in 1628, was annulled by 
the English courts. During the next year Charles II died, 
and his brother James became king. King James appointed 

Sir Edmund Andros the 
first royal governor of 
Massachusetts. Until 
he arrived, a temporary 
government was formed 
under Dudley, who had 
always lived in Massa- 
chusetts, but who was 
opposed to the Puritan 
ideas of church and state. 
96. The Effect on 
Massachusetts of the 
loss of her charter was 
marked. She had al- 
ways enjoyed almost 
complete independence, 
making and executing 
such laws as she desired. It must not be supposed, how- 
ever, that the people of Massachusetts had enjoyed free 
government in the broad sense. None but members of the 
Puritan church could vote, and it is said that at the time 




Governor Andros 



Origin, Growth, and Political History 75 

the charter was annulled more than two thirds of the men 
in the Massachusetts Bay colony were not members of 
the Puritan church, and therefore could not vote or take 
any part in the government. This meant that a minority 
of the people governed the majority. Many of those who 
were not Puritans were strongly opposed to this, and were 
not sorry when the charter was annulled. For this reason 
the colony did not make a united opposition when the 
charter was attacked. 

97. The Despotic Rule of Andros. — The actions of An- 
dros soon tended to unite the people. His rule was of 
the most despotic character. He even took away from the 
towns the right to levy taxes, and levied and collected all 
taxes himself. He ordered that all deeds should be regis- 
tered in Boston and that defective titles to land must be 
confirmed by him. Although there was nothing wrong in 
this, the heavy fee charged, and the threat to hold all 
private titles to land invalid, exasperated the people. By 
the English law a man arrested may demand a trial at 
once. Andros suspended this law, and he could then arrest 
people and keep them in jail for any length of time without 
giving them a chance to prove that they were innocent. 

98. Rhode Island and Connecticut Secure Royal Char- 
ters. — When Connecticut and Rhode Island heard that 
Charles had become king, they did not do as Massachusetts 
had done. Each sent a pleasing and flattering address to 
him, and as a result each secured a charter which provided 
for a very liberal form of government. Under these char- 
ters the people of each colony elected their governors and 
members of the legislature. They could pass any law 
that did not conflict with the laws of England. The Con- 
necticut charter remained in effect until 1818, forty-two 
years after the colonies became the United States, and 



j6 The Thirteen Colonies 

the charter granted to Rhode Island remained in effect 
until 1842. Much against the will of the people of New 
Haven that colony was annexed to Connecticut, and the 
history of New Haven as a separate colony thus came to 
an end in 1662. New Haven had been a strong Puritan 
colony, and as Charles disliked the Puritans, he was glad 
to annex it to Connecticut. Rhode Island and Connecti- 
cut were both required to prevent no one from voting on 
account of his religious belief. But they did not object to 
this. 

99. Other Colonies also Placed under Andros. — As King 
James wished to unite all the northern colonies under one 
man and one government, New York, New Jersey, and 
New Hampshire were placed under Andros. A short time 
before the charters of Rhode Island and Connecticut had 
been rescinded but not formally annulled by the English 
courts, and these colonies also were placed under the arbi- 
trary rule of Andros. Fortunately for New England, the 
king was just as despotic and unjust with his people in 
England as he was with his people in America. 

100. Overthrow of King and Andros ; Massachusetts Se- 
cures New Charter. — In 1688 the English rose in rebellion. 
King James fled to France, and by invitation of the English 
people, William of Orange came over from Holland and 
became king of England. When the people of Massachu- 
setts heard of the rebellion in England, they arrested Gov- 
ernor Andros and placed him in prison. Rhode Island 
and Connecticut reestablished governments under their 
old charters, and no further attempts were made by an 
English king to annul these liberal charters which the 
people of these two colonies loved so well. Massachusetts 
hoped that the new king would grant her a charter that 
would also provide for a liberal form of government, but 



Origin, Growth, and Political History 77 

she was disappointed. She was granted a new charter, 
however, which gave her the right to elect a legislature or 
law-making body, and which provided that no taxes could 
be levied except by the legislature. The people of Massa- 
chusetts, therefore, could not be taxed except by themselves 
— a right dear to all Englishmen, and one which the peo- 
ple of all the colonies were determined to have. The 
charter also provided that no man should be denied the 
right to vote or to take part in the government because of 
his religious ideas. Under the old charter the governor 
was elected by the people ; but under the new charter he 
was appointed by the king. All laws passed by the legis- 
lature had to be sent to the king for his approval before 
they became effective. This was not so liberal a govern- 
ment as that enjoyed by the people of Rhode Island and 
Connecticut, but the people of Massachusetts had to live 
under it until the Revolution, when all the colonies became 
independent of England. As the new charter annexed 
the colony of Plymouth and the territory of Maine to the 
Massachusetts Bay colony, the people of these two places 
also lived under the government of this charter. 

101. New England from 1689 to 1776. — From 1689 to 
1776 Massachusetts and New Hampshire were governed 
by royal governors who were appointed by the English 
kings, and by a legislature elected by the people. During 
the greater part of this time the governors and the people 
were quarreling about taxes and laws. All these quarrels 
caused the people to care less and less for the mother 
country and served to prepare them for complete separa- 
tion from England. During this time Connecticut and 
Rhode Island continued to enjoy the liberal government 
provided by their charters, and as a rule had very little 
trouble with the home government. 



The Thirteen Colonies 



THE MIDDLE COLONIES 



New York 



102. Discovery. — We have already seen that men first 
came to Virginia on account of the love of adventure 

and the pros- 
pects of build- 
ing homes and 
making money 
quickly, and 
that certain re- 
ligious ideas 
brought men to 
New England. 
New York was 
founded purely 
for trading pur- 
poses. This ter- 
ritory was first 
discovered by 
Henry Hudson, 
an English sailor 
employed by the 
Dutch East In- 
dia Company. 
In 1609 he dis- 
covered the river 
which now bears 
his name, but 
which was then 
called North River, and explored the country bordering on 
it. Valuable furs could be obtained very cheaply from the 




Henry Hudson's Vessel, the Half Moon, in the 
Hudson River 



Origin, Growth, and Political History 79 

Indians ; and the Dutch, who were traders and had 
established trading posts all over the world, immediately 
began to send settlers into this country to secure this 
trade. 

103. Early Settlements. — The first settlement was made 
on Manhattan Island in the year 1614, and other towns 
soon sprang into existence under the direction of the 
New Netheriand Company, which was organized by some 
of the early traders who had a monopoly of the trade for 
three years. Later a larger and more powerful company, 
called, the Dutch West India Company, was organized, and 
by 1626 had made settlements along the Hudson from 
Albany to the mouth of the river, as well as on Long 
Island and Manhattan Island. Manhattan Island, the site 
of the main part of the present city of New York, was 
purchased by the Dutch from the Indians in 1626 for 
"about twenty-four dollars' worth of beads and ribbons." 
The entire country was called New Netheriand, and the 
chief town of the colony on Manhattan Island was given 
the name of New Amsterdam. 

104. Character of Colonists and Growth of Colony. — 
While this territory was claimed and held by the Dutch, 
the settlers came from all parts of Europe. The popula- 
tion was very mixed ; all religions were tolerated ; many 
languages were spoken. These first settlers were not real 
colonists in the sense that they intended to make homes 
for themselves and their children. They came simply for 
trading. But the company wished to colonize this entire 
territory and to develop agriculture as well as commerce. 
In order to accomplish this, an agreement was made in 
1629 whereby any member of this company bringing to 
New Netheriand fifty permanent settlers and establishing 
a colony was given a tract of land with sixteen miles 



8o 



The Thirteen Colonies 



frontage on the Hudson. The men receiving these grants 
were called patroons, and the estates thus granted patroon- 
ships. While this scheme brought in a good many colo- 
nists at the time, in the long run it proved a drawback to 
the growth of the entire colony, and real prosperity and 
healthy growth did not begin until the trade was thrown 
open to all, and cheap ownership of land promised in 
small holdings. Then many excellent men and women 
both from the English colonies in America and from 
Europe came in, and the country was settled rapidly. In 
1655 the territory lying south of the Delaware, or South 

River, which had 
been settled by 
Swedes, was con- 
quered by the 
Dutch and added 
to New Nether- 
land. At this time 
the Dutch claims 
extended from the 
Delaware to the 
Connecticut River, 
and from Albany, 
or Fort Orange as 
it was then called, 
to Delaware Bay. 
105. Government 
under the Dutch. 
— While New York 
was under control 
of the Dutch the 
people had very little voice in the government. The gov- 
ernor was appointed by the company, and although he had 




Peter Stuyvesant 



Origin, Growth, and Political History 81 

a council to advise him, he really had all the power of gov- 
ernment in his own hands. Most of the governors were 
not able men, and in many cases they were dishonest and 
unprincipled. Peter Stuyvesant stands out as the ablest 
of them all. He was an honest and energetic man, but 
very despotic and much disliked because of his harsh 
manner of making and enforcing laws. Although his 
rule was arbitrary, and he paid little attention to the 
rights of the people, the colony more than doubled 
its wealth and population under his administration. It 
was under his direction that the Swedish colony at the 
mouth of the Delaware was conquered and annexed to 
New Netherland. He was not so successful, however, in 
enforcing the Dutch claims to the territory lying east of 
the Hudson, for the English colonies were too strong to 
allow him to advance his control to the Connecticut 
River. 

106. The Colony under English Control. — The New 
Netherland territory by its position divided the English 
colonies into two parts, and for that reason, as well as 
on account of the value of its position commercially, the 
English had long desired to gain possession of it. So 
in 1664, although England and Holland were not at war, 
Charles II sem over a small fleet to New Amsterdam to 
demand the surrender of the entire colony. Stuyvesant, 
while taken by surprise, wished to defend the city, but 
could not rouse the settlers to make any resistance. The 
English offered good terms, including protection of per- 
sonal rights and representative government, and it is not 
strange that the people were glad to accept, for they had 
enjoyed none of these rights under Dutch rule. In 1673 
the Dutch again obtained control of this territory, but held 
it only one year. 

G 



82 The Thirteen Colonies 

107. Disposition of New Netherland ; of New Jersey. — 

New Netherland was granted by King Charles to his brother 
James, Duke of York and Albany, and the names of the 
colony and chief town were changed to New York, and 
that of Port Orange to Albany. The duke immediately 
granted the southern part of the territory to two English 
noblemen as a separate province under the name of New 
Jersey. Richard Micolls was made governor of New York. 
He drew up a code of laws which was based on those of New 
England, but which did not give the people of the conquered 
territory as many rights in the government as they had in 
New England. The people were not allowed to elect 
representatives until 1683, when they received a charter 
providing for the election of an assembly of eighteen, who 
were to act with the appointed governor and council in the 
government of the colony. No tax could be levied without 
the consent of the assembly, but no act could become a 
law without the approval of the Duke of York. While 
this appeared to be liberal, it really amounted to nothing ; 
for the duke was opposed to a liberal form of government, 
and never gave his assent to any act of the assembly. 

108. The Colony under the Royal Governors. — In 1685 
the duke was crowned king of England as James II, and 
New York thus became a royal province. The king took 
away the charter of the colony and placed many restric- 
tions on the rights of the people. From this time until 
the Revolution the government was carried on as in 
the other royal colonies, that is, with a governor and 
council appointed by the king and an assembly elected 
by the people. There was constant trouble between the 
assembly and the governor. At one time the opposition 
broke out into open rebellion, and for two years the colony 
was ruled by Jacob Leisler, the leader of the popular party. 



Origin, Growth, and Political History 83 




The Battery, Mew York, in the 17TH Century 

After this, the assembly, the law-making body elected by 
the people, was treated with more respect by the royal 
governors ; but the people of the colony never had as much 
real influence in making laws as did the people of the 
other colonies. 

New Jersey 

109. Origin and Growth in Population. — The first set- 
tlers of the territory later called New Jersey were Dutch 
from New York, about 16 17. The first settlements, 
however, were not of much importance in the early his- 
tory of the colony. The real history of the colony 
begins in 1664, when the English conquered New Neth- 
erland. At this time the Duke of York granted the part 
between New York Harbor and Delaware Bay to Lord 
Berkeley and Sir George Carteret, giving it the name 
New Jersey. Settlers came in from New York, New Eng- 



84 The Thirteen Colonies 

land, and Europe, and the province grew rapidly. The 
population of the colony numbered seventy-five thousand 
people in 1760, and by 1775 it had reached nearly one 
hundred thousand. 

110. Political History. — When Lord Berkeley and Sir 
George Carteret received the grant of New Jersey, they 
established a form of government for the province by a 
document known as the " Concessions." This document 
promised religious freedom and a liberal government under 
a governor and council appointed by the proprietors and 
an assembly elected by the freemen. Because of con- 
flicting claims and trouble in governing the colony, Lord 
Berkeley sold his share to the Quakers, and the province 
was divided into East and West Jersey. The Quakers 
organized the western part with a very liberal government, 
consisting of a body of commissioners and an assembly, 
both chosen by the people. East Jersey was organized 
with the same kind of government as the whole province 
had had under the "Concessions." In 1682 William Penn 
and some men associated with him bought the Carterets' 
rights to East Jersey and became its proprietors. Both 
provinces were continually having trouble about their re- 
lations to the proprietors and to the king, and the people 
came to dislike thoroughly the proprietary form of govern- 
ment. In 1702 the proprietors gave up their rights, and 
the two provinces were united and placed directly under 
the control of the crown. It was governed from that time 
on in the same manner as New York and the other royal 
provinces. 

Delaware 

111. Settlement; Growth and Changes. — As early as 
1623 attempts were made by the Dutch to settle the 



Origin, Growth, and Political History 85 

country along the Delaware River and the Delaware 
Bay, but nothing permanent was done. The first set- 
tlement of any importance in this territory was estab- 
lished by Sweden on the southern bank of the river, in 
1638. This territory was taken by the Dutch, however, 
in 1655 and added to the province of New Netherland. 
When the Dutch in turn were conquered by the English, 
Delaware passed under English control. It remained a 
part of New York until 1682, when William Penn ob- 
tained a grant to it and governed it as a part of Pennsyl- 
vania. In 1702 Delaware organized a separate legislature 
and became a separate province, but it remained under 
the governor of Pennsylvania until the colonies secured 
their independence. 

Pennsylvania 

112. William Penn, the founder of Pennsylvania, first be- 
came interested in establishing a colony in America through 
his interest in the Quakers who had settled in West Jersey. 
Through his father, who was a rich and well-known naval 
officer and in high favor at the English court, William 
Penn had a good opportunity to become prominent in the 
public affairs of England ; but he chose instead to become 
the leader of the Quakers, a religious sect which was much 
hated and persecuted. Besides his interest in the Quakers, 
Penn had other reasons for founding a colony in America. 
He had inherited a debt of about eighty thousand dollars 
due to his father from the English government. Charles 
II had little ready money, so Penn was glad to take in 
payment a grant of land. 

113. King Charles grants Pennsylvania to Penn. — In 
168 1, therefore, Charles II granted him forty thousand 



86 



The Thirteen Colonies 



square miles of land extending from the Delaware River 
westward — almost exactly the territory now included in 
Pennsylvania. He named the territory Pennsylvania 
(Penn's woodland), in honor of his father. As his colony 
had no seacoast, Penn bought the rights to Delaware from 
the Duke of York and governed it as part of Pennsylvania. 




Penn making a Treaty with the Indians 



The southern boundary of Pennsylvania was uncertain and 
caused many disputes with the Calverts, the proprietors of 
Maryland. An agreement was made in 1732 between the 
heirs as to the boundary, and between 1763 and 1767 the line 
of division was finally determined by two English surveyors, 
Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon. This line, called the 
Mason and Dixon line, is famous because the line which 



Origin, Growth, and Political History 87 

later marked the division between free and slave territory 
was sometimes called by this name. 

114. Settlement and Growth in Population. — Penn put 
his plan before the people, promising them just govern- 
ment, religious freedom, protection in their personal 
rights, and cheap land. As a result, large numbers of 
Quakers from England and settlers from all parts of 
Europe, especially Germany, came to this new territory at 
once, and Penn himself with a company of one hundred fol- 
lowed in the next year. Philadelphia was founded by Penn 
in 1683 and grew rapidly into a city. The growth of this 
colony was the most rapid in the history of the American 
colonies. By 1685 Philadelphia alone had two thousand in- 
habitants and the colony eight thousand. By 1750 there 
were about two hundred thousand people in the colony, 
and at the time of the Revolution the combined population 
of Delaware and Pennsylvania had reached four hundred 
thousand. 

115. Nature of Government of Penn's Colony. — When 
King Charles II granted Pennsylvania to William Penn, 
some restrictions were placed on the latter's powers of 
government, the most important being that all laws must 
be approved by the king, and that the king might tax the 
people of the province directly. These restrictions were 
made because there had been so much trouble with some 
of the other colonies on these two points. But the king 
did not interfere very much with the government of the 
colony. As soon as Penn arrived in America, he established 
a very democratic form of government, placing nearly all 
the power in the hands of the colonists. The law-making 
power was given to a legislature of two houses, the mem- 
bers of both being elected by the people. Penn himself 
acted as governor, but did not try to keep much power, 



88 



The Thirteen Colonies 



not even the right to veto acts of the legislature. Nearly- 
all officers were elected by the people, while in Maryland 
and in the royal colonies they were usually appointed by 
the governor or king. 

116. Changes in the Government; Delaware's Legislature. 
— Penn had some trouble with the colonists in regard 
to money matters, and made changes in the constitution, 




K mi -,s. 



.of £0* Km« of £ugfrtn* s "sr-uHihi^frmirp *u!» 2rel<m 

. ^\nii 'jift(»|ci s?ut «f a rrmtUjCtil'irt'lV tvftrc'ir .M 

ttj 1 mm' Btt of bcju'fiH U- ptf . jjMp o»r_£Vt«iu 

The Opening Lines of the Pennsylvania Charter, showing 

taking a vay some of the power given them. For two 
years after King James was deposed, Pennsylvania was 
put under a royal governor with New York, but Penn 
was restored to power at the end of this period. Dela- 
ware was dissatisfied with her share in the government, 
and in 171 2 was granted a separate legislature, although 
she had the same governor as Pennsylvania. 

117. The Province under Deputy Governors. — At the 
close of the century, just before he left America to live 
in England, Penn granted a new constitution. This con- 
stitution was almost as liberal as the one granted at the 



Origin, Growth, and Political History 89 

time the colony was first settled. The assembly elected by 
the people had the power to make all laws, and the gov- 
ernor and council appointed by the proprietor were merely 
advisory. When Penn left the colony in 1701, he left 
a deputy governor and secretary in charge. As most 
of the descendants of Penn preferred to live in England, 
only one coming to America and acting as governor, the 







I 



uamini 




Ornamental Border and Portrait oe Charles II 



government of the colony was carried on in this manner 
during the rest of the colonial period. There was constant 
trouble between the deputy governors and the assembly in 
regard to making laws and raising money, and these quar- 
rels tended to injure the colony. It was during this time 
that Benjamin Franklin came into prominence as the leader 
of the popular party. 



90 The Thirteen Colonies 



QUESTIONS AND TOPICS 

THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 

Questions for Class Recitations 

(In connection with the questions on the "Origin, Growth, and Politi- 
cal History of the Thirteen Colonies," each pupil should read the first 
number of Hart's "Source Readers in American History," pp. 55-162. 
See " Explanatory and Suggestive," p. ix.) What caused the English 
to renew their attempts to colonize in the New World ? Explain fully 
the relations between the Virginia Company and its two branches, — the 
London and the Plymouth companies. Describe the government which 
the general charter provided for these three companies. What territory 
was granted to the Virginia Company? What part of this territory was 
granted at first to each of its branch companies? (Each pupil should 
draw a map that will show plainly the territory granted to the main or 
Virginia Company, and the subgrants of this territory to the London 
and Plymouth companies.) What was the object of the London Com- 
pany in sending settlers to America? Describe the condition of the 
Jamestown settlement during the first year, and the work of John 
Smith. What was the character of the early settlers? Why did they 
come to the New World? Describe the government of the colony under 
Thomas Dale, and the condition of the colony under his rule. 

What is representative government? Describe its origin in America. 
What is a royal province or colony? Explain carefully how and why 
Virginia became a royal province. Did this change affect the law- 
making power of the people? Describe in a general way the relations 
between the royal government and the people. What were the general 
results of these relations? How long was Sir William Berkeley gov- 
ernor of Virginia? What caused his term of office as governor to be 
divided? For what two things was his long rule especially noted? 
Describe Bacon's Rebellion, discussing its cause and results. 

Discuss the origin of Maryland and its growth in population. Con- 
trast Virginia and Maryland with regard to the object of settlement. 
What is a proprietary colony? Describe the difference between the 
proprietary colony Maryland and the royal province Virginia in regard 
to the selection of governor. Contrast Maryland and Virginia in regard 
to the rights and powers the people had in the government of each 



Questions and Topics 91 

colony. Explain carefully how religious disputes affected the political 
history of Maryland. Describe the relations of Virginia and Maryland. 

Describe the origin of North and South Carolina and their growth 
in population. Compare the granting of this territory with the granting 
of Virginia to the London Company. What is the form of government 
that first existed in the Carolinas called? Describe the character of the 
early settlers. Why did they settle in these two colonies? What rights 
did the people of these two colonies have in the government when it was 
first organized? Explain carefully how the religious beliefs of the peo- 
ple affected their political rights. Explain carefully to what extent the 
people controlled government in these two colonies. What caused these 
two colonies to become royal provinces? Describe briefly the growth 
of these colonies, giving the names and locations of the larger towns. 

Describe the origin and growth of Georgia, and give the reason for 
its settlement. What was the character of its early settlers? Describe 
the growth of this colony. Why was the colony not more prosperous? 
What powers did the people have in the government? In what way 
was South Carolina benefited by the founding of Georgia? When and 
why did Georgia become a royal province? 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the object of the settlement and the character of the settlers 
of each of the southern colonies. Compare these colonies with respect 
to growth in wealth and population. Discuss the origin of represen- 
tative government in America. Compare the southern colonies with 
respect to the rights of the people in government. Discuss the relations 
between the royal governors and the people. (Each pupil should draw 
a map of the southern colonies. This map should show the boundaries 
and the more important cities, mountains, and rivers of each colony.) 



THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 

Questions for Class Recitations 

Explain carefully why King Henry VIII had himself declared the 
head of the Catholic church in England. Did he wish to destroy or 
make many changes in the doctrines of the church ? How did the 



92 The Thirteen Colonies 

Episcopal church come to be established? Describe the origin of 
the Puritans. Describe the origin of the Separatists. How did the 
Separatists differ from the Puritans? How were the Puritans and 
Separatists treated? Why did the Separatists go to Holland? Why 
did they wish to leave Holland and go to America? Why were 
they called Pilgrims? Did they intend to settle in Massachusetts? 
Describe the first year of the life of the Plymouth colony. Explain 
carefully the conditions that caused the Puritans to wish to leave 
England and come to America. How did the Puritans obtain land in 
America? What settlements were made by the Puritans in Massachu- 
setts? Compare the growth of the Plymouth colony with that of the 
Massachusetts Bay colony. Describe the origin and growth of the Con- 
necticut colony. Describe the origin and growth of the New Haven 
colony. How did the Connecticut and New Haven colonies become 
united? What caused the settlement of Rhode Island? Tell what 
you can about Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson. Describe 
the growth of Rhode Island. What was the character of the first 
settlements in New Hampshire and Maine? 

Compare the object of the settlers of New England with that of the 
settlers of Virginia in coming to America. Give a careful discussion 
of religious liberty in each of the New England colonies. What kind 
of government did they establish? Explain carefully how the life and 
government of the people were affected by the fact that they came over 
in congregations, each congregation settling together. Discuss the 
town meetings, explaining their nature, powers, and who could take part 
in them. Tell what you can about the beginning of representative govern- 
ment in New England. Compare this with the beginning of repre- 
sentative government in Virginia. Give a careful discussion of the 
government provided for by her charter. Show that it was not necessary 
in all the colonies for a man to be a church member in order that he 
might vote. Describe the government of Plymouth colony. Give a 
careful description of the government of Connecticut and Rhode Island. 
In what way did the government of Connecticut differ from that of all 
the other colonies? By a careful discussion show that in New England 
the people controlled the law-making branch of the government. What 
caused the formation of the New England Confederacy? Why was 
Rhode Island not admitted to this Confederacy? Describe the nature 
of the government provided for by the Confederacy. Why was it not 
a strong union? Of what value was the Confederacy? 



Questions and Topics 93 

Explain carefully why the Indians at first did not trouble the Pilgrims. 
Explain carefully why later they became unfriendly. Discuss the 
causes and results of the Pequod War. How did the Puritans treat the 
Indians as a rule? Why were the Indians and the Puritans not able to 
get along well together? Discuss the causes of King Philip's War. 
Compare this war with the Pequod War. Give a careful discussion of 
the results of King Philip's War, and explain how this war affected the 
future relations of the people of New England with the Indians. 

Explain carefully why Charles I disliked the Puritans. For what 
causes did the Puritans banish people from Massachusetts? Describe 
the quarrels between Massachusetts and Charles I. Discuss the relations 
between New England and the English government during the time 
that Cromwell and Parliament ruled England. When Charles II 
became king, what demand did he make on the Massachusetts Bay 
colony? Were these demands reasonable? Explain fully all the 
conditions and circumstances that caused the charter of this colony to 
be annulled. Explain all the circumstances and conditions that enabled 
Connecticut and Rhode Island to secure new charters at this time. 
Explain carefully the nature of the government for which these charters 
provided. Explain why many people in Massachusetts did not object 
to having the charter of their colony annulled. Explain carefully how 
Governor Andros created strong opposition to his rule in Massachu- 
setts. Explain carefully how his rule affected Connecticut and Rhode 
Island. Why did the king wish to unite all New England under one 
governor? How was the rule of Governor Andros brought to an end? 
Explain carefully the nature of the government provided for by the new 
charter which the new king granted to Massachusetts. How did this 
charter affect Plymouth colony and Maine? Indicate briefly the con- 
dition of government in each of the New England colonies from 1689 
to 1776. 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the religious conditions in England leading to the settlements 
of New England. Describe the settlement of each of the New England 
colonies. Compare the New England colonies with the southern 
colonies in respect to the object of their settlement and character of 
their settlers. Discuss the Puritan ideas of government as shown in 
the government established in New England. Compare the New Eng- 



94 The Thirteen Colonies 

land and the southern colonies in respect to the power of the people in the 
government. Discuss the relation between the Indians and the settlers 
of New England. Discuss the annulling of the charter of the Massa- 
chusetts Bay colony. Compare the relations between the people and 
the royal governors in New England with those between the people 
and the royal governors in the southern colonies. 



THE MIDDLE COLONIES 
Questions for Class Recitations 

Explain fully how the Dutch secured New York. Compare care- 
fully the settlement of Virginia and of Massachusetts with regard to 
purpose of settlement. Why was New York at first called New Nether- 
land ? Describe the character of the early settlers. Describe the 
policy adopted for inducing settlers to come to the colony. Describe 
the government of New York by the Dutch. Tell what you can of the 
work of Peter Stuyvesant. Discuss the conquest of New York by the 
English. Explain carefully the conditions that caused New York to 
become a royal province. Compare the government of New York by 
the English with its government by the Dutch. Give a careful discus- 
sion of the relations of the people with the royal governors. 

Describe the origin and growth of New Jersey. Describe the gov- 
ernment established in this colony by the proprietors. Why was the 
colony divided ? Describe fully the conditions which caused this 
colony to be made a royal province. Describe the origin and growth 
of Delaware. Give a full and careful explanation of the conditions that 
caused William Penn to found a colony in America. Describe the 
settlement of Pennsylvania and its growth in population. Why did 
Penn buy the right to Delaware ? Explain the origin of the Mason 
and Dixon line and its relation to slavery. Describe the character 
of the early settlers of Pennsylvania. Describe the government estab- 
lished by Penn. Compare the rights of the people in the government 
of this colony with their rights in the government of the other colonies. 
Describe the government of the province under the deputy governors. 



Questions and Topics 95 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the causes leading to the settlement of each of the middle 
colonies, and compare them with the causes of the settlement of New 
England and the southern colonies. Compare each of the middle 
colonies with the New England and southern colonies in respect to 
government, bringing out the powers of the people in the government 
of each. Compare the middle with the southern and New England 
colonies in respect to the character of their settlers. Compare the 
growth of the middle colonies with the growth of the New England and 
the southern colonies. 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



THE FRENCH IN NORTH AMERICA 

I. The Spanish in America 
II. French Explorations and Settlements 

III. Contrast of French and English Colonies as to Purpose of 

Settlement 

IV. Relations of the French with the Indians 
i. Value of Indian Friendship 

2. Enmity of the Iroquois: Effect on Colonial History 
V. Early Conflicts between the French and English 
i. Conditions making Conflicts inevitable 

2. Conditions leading to English Success 

3. King William's, Queen Anne's, and King George's Wars 
VI. The French and Indian War 

1 . Scope and General Results 

2. Beginnings 

(a) Washington's Mission to Fort Duquesne 

(6) Washington's Defeat 

(c) Result of the English Defeat 

3. Weakness of Colonial Organization ; Braddock's Defeat 

4. Other English Reverses 

5. The War under Pitt's Direction 

(a) His Vigorous Policy 

(b) Capture of Louisburg and Forts Frontenac and Duquesne 
(V) Capture of Quebec 



96 



The French in North America gy 



THE FRENCH IN NORTH AMERICA 

118. Spanish Settlements Founded. —While the English 
colonies were being established on the Atlantic seaboard 
between Florida and Canada, Spain and France also were 
planting colonies in the New World. Spain secured con- 
siderable territory in South America, all of Central Amer- 
ica, Florida, Mexico, and the territory which now comprises 
the southwestern part of the United States, including Cali- 
fornia. The Spanish did not plant colonies in the same way, 
nor for the same purpose, as did the English. Their main 
purpose was not to establish homes, as was true of the Eng- 
lish, but to secure the gold which they hoped to find here. 
They succeeded in securing an immense amount of gold and 
silver in Mexico and in Central and South America. 

119. Treatment of Natives ; Decay of Spanish Power. — 
The Spaniards conquered, robbed, and enslaved the half- 
civilized Indians of these countries. As they found no 
gold in any of the territory which now comprises the United 
States, the Spaniards made but few settlements north of 
Mexico or in Florida. St. Augustine in Florida was 
founded in 1565 and Santa Fe in New Mexico in 1582. 
While these were the first permanent settlements made in 
what is now the United States, they are of little importance 
in American history. It was the Spanish claims to this ter- 
ritory that influenced American history, and not the settle- 
ments made. The defeat of the Spanish Armada weakened 
Spain's influence in the New World, and left the French 
the only serious rivals of the English in North America. 

120. French in America ; Cartier. — The French explored 
and settled the territory north and west of the English 



9 8 



The Thirteen Colonies 



colonies. Cartier was the first great French explorer of this 
region. Between 1535 and 1544 he made several voyages 
to the country north of New York and New England, and 
explored the St. Lawrence River and the territory adjoin- 
ing, but made no permanent settlements. 

121. Champlain ; First Permanent Settlement. — From 
1544 to 1600 the French did very little toward exploring 
the country. But in 1603 Champlain, the second great 
French explorer, made his first visit to the territory ex- 
plored by Cartier some sixty years before. From the time 
of this voyage until his death in 1635, Champlain devoted 
all his time and energy to exploring and settling the 

country north and west of 
New England. He is justly 
called the " Father of New 
France." The first perma- 
nent settlement was Port 
Royal in Acadia, founded 
in 1604, three years before 
Jamestown was founded 
in Virginia. Quebec was 
founded in 1608 and Mont- 
real in 161 1. From these 
early settlements in Canada, 
explorers and missionaries pushed on westward and south- 
ward into the region of the Great Lakes. 

122. Joliet and Marquette ; La Salle ; French Claims. — 
It was by the missionaries, Joliet and Marquette, that the 
upper part of the Mississippi was discovered and partially 
explored in 1673. The entire exploration of this great 
river was accomplished between 1679 and 1682 by La 
Salle, one of the greatest of the early explorers. He had, 
before this, discovered and partially explored the Illinois 




L-HAMPi.Ain 



The French in North America 



99 



and Ohio rivers, and on completing his voyage down the 
Mississippi he claimed all the territory drained by these 
rivers and their tributaries for France, and named it Loui- 
siana in honor of the French king, Louis XIV. 

The French Claims in North America in 1682 in- 
cluded, therefore, all the territory from the Appalachian 
to the Rocky Mountains, the region of the Great Lakes, 
and the country to the north of these lakes and of the 
English colonies, including Nova Scotia and Newfound- 
land. 

123. Purpose of French Settlement; Contrast with the 
English. — The French settlements in North America 
were of a more permanent nature than those of the 
Spanish, but they were not like those of the English. 
The difference between the French and English colonies 
was due largely to the difference in the purpose of set- 
tlement. The English built up their colonies for the 
purpose of making homes, for the purpose of creating 
a little England on this side of the ocean. They brought 
all their institutions with them, and insisted on having 
all the rights that Englishmen in England had. They 
considered themselves just as much Englishmen as if 
they were living in England. The French settlements 
were more like military and trading posts than real 
colonies. The French came to America for the money 
to be derived from the fisheries and fur trade, and for 
the purpose of converting the Indians and gaining more 
territory for France. They made no real effort to build up 
in the New World the farming and city life of France, and 
with the exception of Acadia no important farming com- 
munity was established. The French colonists had practi- 
cally no political rights. They were ruled by a military 
governor appointed by the king, whose main object was to 



IOO 



The Thirteen Colonies 



develop the fur trade and lay claim to as much territory as 
possible for the French king. The explorers buried leaden 
plates throughout the Mississippi and Ohio valleys, on 
which were written statements claiming the territory for 
France. While the French were thus extending their 
claims over this vast territory, the English were quietly 
building up strong and prosperous farming communities 
on their strip of land along the Atlantic coast. The terri- 




An Early French Fort 



tory occupied by the English colonies was small compared 
with the vast territory claimed by the French, and yet, 
when the English defeated the French in the struggle for 
supremacy and compelled France to surrender all of Can- 
ada and the territory east of the Mississippi, the total 
French population in all the French possessions in North 
America was less than one hundred thousand, while the 
population of the English colonies had reached almost 
two millions. This great difference in population was 
the direct result of the difference in purpose which the 



The French in North America 101 

French and English had in planting colonies in the New- 
World. 

124. Relations of French and Indians ; Value of Indian 
Friendship. — The fact that the French did not establish 
colonies for the same purpose as the English, but wished 
mainly to secure the fur trade, had an important effect 
on their relations with the Indians. The products of the 
farms and the fisheries, and the trade in these products 
and those of other countries, were the source of wealth 
and prosperity in the English colonies. The welfare of the 
English did not depend to any great extent on the friend- 
ship of the Indians, except as it might prevent the Indians 
from attacking the frontier settlements. It was different 
with the French. Their welfare depended largely on the 
fur trade, and as the Indians controlled most of this, it 
became necessary for the French to be on friendly terms 
with them. The small French trading stations were far 
apart and scattered over a large territory. If the Indians 
in this territory were not friendly, they could easily destroy 
these trading posts and greatly injure the French fur 
trade. 

125. Enmity of Iroquois ; Effect on English History. — 
When Champlain explored the country along the St. Law- 
rence and between this river and Lake Huron, he found 
it occupied by two tribes of Indians, the Algonquins 
and the Hurons. The fur trade of this region depended 
on the friendship of these Indians, and Champlain natu- 
rally desired to secure this friendship. He was very glad, 
therefore, to assist the Algonquins in a fight against an- 
other tribe of Indians. The Algonquins won an easy 
victory because their foes had never seen a white man 
nor heard a gun discharged. The battle was a very small 
affair, but it had a very important effect on the future of 



102 



The Thirteen Colonies 



the French and English colonies. The Indians whom 
Champlain helped the Algonquins to defeat belonged to 
the Iroquois, or Five Nations, a confederacy of five 
Indian tribes. This was the most powerful Indian con- 
federacy in North America and was composed of the 




Champlain's attack on an Iroquois Fort 



Senecas, Oneidas, Mohawks, Onondagas, and Cayugas. 
The battle in which the Iroquois were defeated by the 
Algonquins aided by Champlain, made the Iroquois the 
everlasting enemies of the French and the friends of 
the English. As the Iroquois occupied the territory be- 



The French in North America 103 



tween the St. Lawrence country and the English on the 
seaboard, the French were compelled to establish their 
trading posts to the west and south. The Iroquois, there- 
fore, prevented the French from occupying the present 
state of New York, and from coming in contact with the 
English. But if the Iroquois had been friendly with the 
French, there is no good reason to suppose that the French 
alone would have been able to do much harm to the Eng- 
lish settlements, because the English colonists were always 
more numerous than the French, and were amply able to 




Early French Fur-traders on a Canadian River 

take care of themselves. The English would have had 
much more to fear from the Iroquois. The importance of 
Champlain's battle with the Iroquois, therefore, was the 
fact that it made these Indians the friends of the English 
and the enemies of the French. 

126. French Success in Dealing with the Indians. — Had 
it not been for the battle referred to above, the French, 
very likely, would have succeeded in winning the friend- 
ship of the Iroquois and using this strong confederacy 
against the English, for the French were very successful 
in making friends of the Indian tribes in the territory 



104 The Thirteen Colonies 

which they claimed. In fact, their ability to make allies 
of the Indians was the real source of their power. The 
French traders and missionaries treated the Indians with 
respect and in many cases adopted their customs ; while 
the English, on the other hand, treated them with open 
contempt as an inferior race. Throughout colonial his- 
tory in North America the French, as a rule, were more 
successful in dealing with the Indians than were the 
English. 

127. French and English Policy regarding North America. 
— While the attitude of the Iroquois, or Five Nations, 
served to keep the English and French settlements apart 
for a while, and compelled the French to advance in another 
direction, it could not prevent the final conflict between the 
French and English over the control of North America. 
It became the definite policy of France to claim as much 
of North America as possible. In addition to burying 
leaden plates throughout this territory, proclaiming their 
possession, the French built forts or trading posts so as to 
be able to say that they really occupied the country. The 
English, as has already been stated, came to the New 
World for the purpose of making homes. They cared 
very little how much territory France claimed so long as 
they had enough for farming purposes, and so long as the 
French did not attempt to establish a trading post east of 
the Appalachian Mountains. 

128. A Conflict between the French and English, how- 
ever, was sure to come, because the English, as soon as 
they had occupied all the territory east of the Appalachians, 
began to pass over these mountains into the Ohio Valley. 
When the English began to do this, it became necessary 
for France and England to settle the question as to which 
of them should control North America. If the English 



The French in North America 105 

occupied the Ohio Valley, the French in Canada would be 
separated from the French in the southern part of the 
Mississippi Valley. This would overthrow all the French 
plans for a great empire in the New World, and France 
would not permit this without fighting. The French had 
long seen, more clearly than the English, that this conflict 
must come, and when the English settlers began to come 
over the Alleghanies, France knew that she must either 
drive them back or bid farewell to her plans and aspi- 
rations for colonial empire in the New World. France 
decided to settle the question by war, and in the spring 
of 1754 there began the final conflict which resulted in 
the total loss to France of all this vast territory, and which 
made the English forever supreme in North America. 

129. English Supremacy Inevitable. — From the time 
the first settlements were made there was never any real 
question as to which would finally win in this contest. 
France could not check the slow but steady and sub- 
stantial advance of the English into the territory which 
she claimed, but did not settle, unless she destroyed the 
English colonies. This the French could not do, be- 
cause during nearly all the colonial period there were 
twenty Englishmen in America to every Frenchman. The 
attempt of a colonial French army to subdue or march 
through the English colonies would have resulted in its 
total destruction. France could and did send soldiers to 
America, but England did the same. The English colo- 
nists were a free, brave, and determined people. A few 
years later they destroyed several British armies and won 
their independence. France, certainly, could not defeat 
in the New World both England and her colonists. The 
French military occupations could not withstand the home- 
building English policy. 



106 The Thirteen Colonies 

130. The Struggle for North America. — Although the 
final struggle between France and England for the con- 
trol of North America did not begin until 1754, the 
French and English colonists, and the Indian allies of 
each, had been fighting twenty-six years. These twenty- 
six years of fighting included three different wars. The 
first, named after King William of England, was known 
in America as King William's War, and lasted from 1689 
to 1697; the second, named after Queen Anne of Eng- 
land, was known as Queen Anne's War, and lasted from 
1701 to 1713; the third, named after King George of 
England, was known in America as King George's War, 
and lasted from 1745 to 1748. All three of these wars 
began in Europe, and were caused by trouble between 
France and England in Europe. They were not caused 
by anything that happened in America. When the mother 
countries were at war, it was perfectly natural that the 
colonists, their children in North America, should also 
do some fighting. The results of the fighting done in 
America were not very important. In each war the 
French and their Indian allies destroyed some of the Eng- 
lish settlements on the frontier and massacred the set- 
tlers, women and children as well as the men. Some of 
these were slowly burned to death or tortured in other 
ways. 

131. In King William's War, the first of these three 
wars, the French defeated the Iroquois and weakened 
their fighting power, but their strength was nearly re- 
stored when the Tuscaroras, a kindred tribe in North 
Carolina, came north and joined them. After this the 
Iroquois were known as the Six Nations. During this 
same war the English colonists laid siege to Quebec and 
Montreal, but could not capture either place. 



The French in North America 107 

132. During Queen Anne's War, the second of these three 
wars, the English captured Acadia and changed its name 
to Nova Scotia. It has ever since belonged to England. 

133. During King George's War, the last of these three 
wars, four thousand men from New England, with the 
assistance of some British war ships, captured Louisburg. 
This fortress was on Cape Breton Island, and its capture 
was a great surprise to both France and England, be- 




Tiie FortrilSS 01" Louisburg 



cause, next to Quebec, it was the strongest fortress in 
America. After the war England gave it back to France. 
This caused great dissatisfaction among the English colo- 
nists, and especially among those of New England. 

134. As the Result of these Three Wars, all that the Eng- 
lish in America secured was Nova Scotia and some military 
training. The French secured no new territory to offset 
the loss of Nova Scotia. These wars consisted largely of 
fruitless bloodshed and murder on the English frontiers. 



108 The Thirteen Colonies 

The French and Indian War 

135. Scope and General Results. — The fourth and last 
war between the French and the English in the New 
World began, not in Europe, as had the other three, but in 
North America. It was caused by the conditions we have 
already discussed. The first battle of this war was fought 
in 1754. This was two years before war was formally 
declared between France and England, and during this 
time several battles had been fought. In 1756 the war 
between the French and English in America became a 
part of one of the greatest wars of modern times. Eng- 
land and Frederick the Great of Prussia united against 
France, Spain, Austria, and Russia. In Europe this war 
was known as the Seven Years' War, and lasted from 1756 
to 1763. In America it was known as the French and 
Indian War, and lasted from 1754 to 1763. In a most 
heroic struggle, Frederick the Great, aided by England, 
was a match for his combined enemies in Europe, and by 
the treaty signed by all the nations engaged in the war 
Prussia did not lose a foot of territory. The war was most 
disastrous to France. The treaty which closed it marked 
the temporary end of French colonial empire, but France 
has since secured some valuable colonial possessions. She 
lost all her possessions in North America, and nearly all 
of them in India. England secured the greater part of 
the territory that France lost, and gained more by the war 
than any other nation. 

136. French and English in the Ohio Valley. — As has 
already been stated, the condition which caused the begin- 
ning of the final conflict between the French and English 
over the control of North America was the passing of the 
English over into the Ohio Valley. In 1750 the Ohio 



iio The Thirteen Colonies 

Company was organized in Virginia. The object of this 
company was to settle the lands in the Ohio Valley and 
to secure the rich fur trade west of the Appalachian 
Mountains. Governor Dinwiddie of Virginia and two 
brothers of George Washington were interested in this 
company. In 1750 it surveyed the lands as far as the 
present city of Louisville, Kentucky. The French at 
once saw the real meaning of all this, and decided to 
drive the English back over the mountains. They had 
already built a few forts in the Ohio and Mississippi 
valleys, thus connecting, in a loose way, their possessions 
along the Mississippi with those in the St. Lawrence Val- 
ley. In 1753 they began to build a series of forts, extend- 
ing from the southern shore of Lake Erie almost due south 
to where Pittsburg now stands, at the point where the Al- 
leghany and Monongahela rivers unite to form the Ohio. 
137. George Washington's Mission to Fort Duquesne. — 
After the French had built three of these forts, Governor 
Dinwiddie of Virginia sent George Washington to request 
them to proceed no farther south, as the territory belonged 
to the English. Washington delivered this warning to the 
French commander, who was at the second fort, and al- 
though he treated Washington with the greatest courtesy, 
he very naturally paid no attention to the warning. In 
the spring of 1754, after completing the third fort, the 
French moved south for the purpose of building the fourth, 
on the site of the present city of Pittsburg. When they 
arrived, they found a small party of Englishmen busily 
engaged in constructing a fort. These the French drove 
away and built a fort which they called Duquesne, in 
honor of Duquesne, the governor of New France. Vir- 
ginia at once sent three hundred men to drive the French 
away from this fort. The English troops were commanded 



The French in North America 1 1 1 

by Colonel Fry, and Washington, with the rank of major, 
was second in command. On the march Fry became sick 
and Washington assumed the command. 

138. Washington's Defeat. — As the English approached 
Fort Duquesne, they were met at a place called Great 
Meadows by a much larger force of French soldiers. 
Washington hurriedly built a fort, and called it Fort 
Necessity. The French attacked this fort, and Washing- 
ton, after resisting the attack for the larger part of a day, 
was compelled to surrender his little army. This was 
Washington's first and only surrender. By the terms of 
surrender the English were permitted to march out with 
the honors of war and to return to Virginia. This battle 
and a skirmish which preceded it were the beginning of 
the French and Indian War. 

139. Result of the English Defeat. — The defeat of 
Washington of itself was but a small affair, but the results 
were very important. It naturally caused the Indians in 
the Ohio Valley to join the French. This meant murder 
and massacres along the English frontier in Pennsylvania, 
Maryland, and Virginia. It also meant that the English 
would be restricted to the seaboard, unless they could 
defeat the French. The royal governors, especially Din- 
widdie of Virginia and Shirley of Massachusetts, realized 
that the situation was very serious, and wished to organize 
an army at once, and to invade the French territory. 
They asked England for soldiers, and she sent over one 
thousand to Virginia, under General Braddock. 

140. Inaction of English Colonies ; Albany Congress. — 
They asked the colonies for soldiers and money, but the 
legislatures were slow in voting either, and seemed to care 
very little whether the French were attacked or not. If the 
French had invaded the colonies, the colonists would have 



I i 2 The Thirteen Colonies 

risen as one man and driven them out ; but so long as the 
French remained on the other side of the mountains, the 
English settlers seemed little concerned. There were a few 
of the colonists, however, who understood the real impor- 
tance of the situation. The colonies were asked to send 
delegates to a convention, for the purpose of adopting 
some plan that would result in all the colonies uniting 
against the French. The convention met at Albany, New 
York, and is known as the Albany Congress. Benjamin 
Franklin proposed a plan of union that would have 
created a strong central government, with power to pro- 
vide for the common defense of the colonies. The con- 
gress adopted this plan, but all the colonies rejected it. 
141. Weakness of Colonial Organization ; Braddock's De- 
feat. — Thus, at the beginning of an important war, there 
was no central power in the colonies that could raise money 
and troops. The legislature of each colony could do as it 
pleased in the matter, while all of New France was united 
under the absolute control of the governor genera). The 
colonies, however, increased Braddock's force to about 
twenty-two hundred men, and sent an expedition against 
the French in the Niagara River country, and another 
against the French forts at Ticonderoga and Crown Point 
on Lake Champlain. With his army of about twenty-two 
hundred men Braddock began his march on Fort Duquesne. 
On July 9, 1775, after about a month's march over the 
mountains and through dense forests, Braddock, with about 
fifteen hundred soldiers, arrived within a few miles of the 
fort. The French with their Indian allies knew of the 
English advance, and came out from Fort Duquesne to 
surprise them in the great forest that covered the country. 
Without warning the advance guards of the two armies 
met face to face, in the narrow path that led to the fort. 



The French in North America 1 1 3 



One of the first few shots killed the brave French com- 
mander. The French and Indians hid behind trees on 
each side of the road, and the Virginia soldiers did the 
same. The English regulars would have done this also, 
but General Braddock compelled them to keep formed in 
battle line, as they would have done if fighting in Europe. 
The French and Indians partially surrounded the English, 
and, protected by the trees, killed or wounded all but four 
hundred and fifty-nine. Braddock was mortally wounded, 
and Washington, who was second in command, conducted 
the retreat in a very able manner, and led the remnant of 
the army back to Virginia. The English defeat was due 
to the fact that Braddock was determined to fight as he 
had been accustomed to fighting in Europe. If he had 

permitted the English regu- 
lars to get behind the trees, 
as did the Indians and the 
French, the result might 
have been different. 

142. Other English Re- 
verses. — The expedition 
against Niagara was a com- 
plete failure. The one 
against the French forts 
of Ticonderoga and Crown 
Point was but a partial 
success. These failures 
and Braddock's defeat, 
which permitted the de- 
struction of the settlements 
on the English frontier in 
Pennsylvania, New York, and Virginia, aroused the colo- 
nies and the home government in England. In May, 




Montcalm 



ii4 



The Thirteen Colonies 



1756, England declared war on France, and sent over 
to America more soldiers and new generals. France 
also sent over more soldiers under General Montcalm. 

Montcalm was an ad- 
mirable man and one of 
the ablest generals of 
France. The English 
generals were no match 
for him. In 1756 he 
captured Oswego on 
Lake Ontario, and se- 
cured control of the 
lake. During the next 
year he captured Fort 
William Henry at the 
southern end of Lake 
George. After the Eng- 
lish surrendered, the 
Indian allies of the 
French murdered and 
scalped more than two hundred of them. Montcalm did 
all he could to protect the English prisoners, but he could 
not save all of them. It was the most cowardly and 
contemptible act committed during the war. " To Mont- 
calm it was an abiding grief." 

143. The War under William Pitt ; his Vigorous Policy. — 
The year 1757 marked the high tide of French success. 
In June of that year William Pitt became Prime Minister 
of England. He had charge of all English military 
operations in all parts of the world. He was a man of 
great ability — the greatest war minister England has ever 
had. He had the confidence of the English people at 
home and in the colonies. Heat once began to reorganize 




William Pitt 






The French in North America 1 1 5 

the military plans of England. He recalled all but one of 
the inefficient generals who had been sent to America, and 
appointed others. Amherst, an able general, was made 
commander in chief, and among his able assistants were 
Wolfe and Howe, both of whom were killed during the 
war. Pitt was determined to drive the French out of 
America, and for this purpose raised an army of fifty 
thousand, which was by far the largest army that had so 
far assembled in North America. Twenty-five thousand 
of these soldiers were furnished by the colonies, and the 
other twenty-five thousand were sent from England. 
This active and vigorous policy of Pitt's at once began to 
bear fruit. 

144. Capture of Louisburg and Forts Frontenac and 
Duquesne. — With exception of the disastrous defeat of the 
incompetent Abercrombie at Fort Ticonderoga, which was 
defended by Montcalm, the English armies were successful 
from the beginning of 1758. General Amherst, with the 
assistance of Wolfe and Admiral Boscawen, undertook the 
capture of Louisburg. They hurled against that strong 
fortress sixteen thousand five hundred soldiers, and twenty- 
three English battle ships. On July 26, 1758, after a siege 
of forty-eight days, and a heroic defense by the French, 
the fortress surrendered. The capture of Louisburg re- 
moved a danger from New England, and gave the English a 
base from which to carry on operations for the capture of 
Quebec. It also made it possible for the English to attack 
with more vigor the French forts on the New York and 
Pennsylvania frontiers. On August 27, General Brad- 
street, with about three thousand men from New England, 
crossed Lake Ontario and captured Fort Frontenac. The 
capture of this fort made it difficult for the French to get 
supplies and soldiers to Fort Duquesne. This was fortu- 



u6 



The Thirteen Colonies 



nate for the English, for General Forbes, with the assistance 
of Washington and Boquet, was leading an army against 
that fort. When the English reached Fort Duquesne in 
November, the French army had deserted and partly 
destroyed it. The English rebuilt the fort and called it 
Fort Pitt. From the traders' cabins around the fort the 
present city of Pittsburg has grown. 




Quebec in 1759 

145. The Capture of Quebec. — During the year 1759 
the English captured the city of Quebec and Forts 
Niagara and Ticonderoga. During the next year they 
captured the city of Montreal. These victories completed 
the overthrow of French power on the North American 
continent. The most dramatic event of the war was the 
capture of Quebec. The young and able General Wolfe 
commanded the English forces. The French forces were 
commanded by the gallant and able General Montcalm. 
Both of these men were kind, considerate, and of admirable 



The French in North America 117 

character. Both loved their country, and both knew that 
the capture of Quebec by the English meant the end of the 
war and the destruction of French power in North America. 
The city of Quebec is situated on the point of land between 
the rivers St. Lawrence and St. Charles, where the two 
rivers meet, the river St. Lawrence at this point really 
being an extension of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The 
cliff on which the city stands is about two hundred feet 
high and has very steep faces. Back of the city where the 
strip of land becomes wider lie what are called the Plains 
of Abraham. The city, which was thus so strong by the 
nature of its location, was also well fortified and so carefully 
guarded by Montcalm that Wolfe spent all of July and 
August in a vain effort to form some plan of attack. It 
looked to him as though he must give up the attempt, when 
one day he saw a dim path leading up the steep cliff. 
This path was about two miles from the city and led from 
the St. Lawrence River up to the Plains of Abraham. On 
September 12, the English war vessels, in order to 
deceive Montcalm, bombarded the city furiously and pre- 
tended to be preparing to land troops on the St. Charles 
side of the city. About midnight Wolfe and five thousand 
soldiers began to climb up the little path on the St. Law- 
rence side. In the morning Montcalm was much surprised 
to find five thousand English soldiers drawn up in battle 
line on the Plains of Abraham. He at once led his troops 
in an attack on the English. The result was the complete 
defeat of the French. 

146. Death of Wolfe and Montcalm. — Montcalm and 
Wolfe were both mortally wounded. When dying, Wolfe 
heard one of his men cry, " See how they run ! " — " Who 
run ? " exclaimed Wolfe. When told it was the French, 
he murmured, " Now, God be praised, I will die in peace." 



1 1 



The Thirteen Colonies 



When Montcalm was told that he would soon die from the 
wounds which he had received, he said, " So much the 
better, I shall not live to see the surrender of Quebec." 
Thus died two of the ablest generals of the French and 
Indian War. The one would never again see England nor 
his sweetheart whom he was soon to have married ; the 
other would never again see France nor his wife and 
children whom he loved clearly. 

147. Treaty of Peace; Results of the War. — Although 
the last battle of the French and Indian War was 
fought in the year 
1760, the treaty of 
peace was not signed 
until the end of the 
Seven Years' War, 
which was in 1763. 
Among other things, 
this treaty gave to 
England all the terri- 
tory east of the Mis- 
sissippi except the 
island on which New 
Orleans stands. To 
Spain was given this 
island and all the ter- 
ritory west of the 
great river. France 
retained nothing in 
North America ex- 
cept two small islands 

in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The results of the war made 
it plain that the language and institutions of England 
would be supreme in North America. The English colo- 




Questions and Topics 1 1 9 

nies could now develop in peace so far as any foreign nation 
was concerned. The war brought about conditions which 
helped to bring on the Revolution, and the training which 
the colonists received in this contest with the French pre- 
pared them for the conflict with the mother country. 

QUESTIONS AND TOPICS 

THE FRENCH IN NORTH AMERICA 

Questions for Class Recitation 

(In connection with the questions on the French in North America, 
each pupil should read the second number of Hart's " Source Readers 
in American History, 11 pp. 71-150. See ''Explanatory and Sugges- 
tive, 11 page ix.) Compare the Spanish and English colonies in the New 
World with regard to purpose of settlement. Describe the Spanish 
settlements made in the territory which now comprises part of the 
United States. Why did Spain not make more settlements in this 
territory? How was this related to the French and English colonies 
in North America? Give a careful description of the explorations and 
settlements made byCartier and Champlain. Why is Champlain called 
the " Father of New France 11 ? What part of the continent was ex- 
plored by Joliet and Marquette? Discuss La Salle's explorations. 
(Each pupil should draw a map showing the routes of these explorers 
and the territory claimed by France by virtue of these explorations.) 
Describe the manner in which the explorers took possession of the 
country for France. Explain carefully how the French and English 
colonies differed as to purpose of settlement. Explain carefully how 
this affected the character of the settlements of the two nations. Com- 
pare the English and French colonies in respect to location, extent, 
and size of population. What caused the great difference in population? 

Why did the French wish to be friendly with the Indians? How 
did they gain the friendship of the Indians? Explain carefully why 
the English were less dependent on the Indians than were the French. 
How did the French make enemies of the Iroquois ? Explain carefully 
how this affected the growth of the French colonies. How did the 
friendship of the Iroquois for the English affect the growth of the 



i 20 The Thirteen Colonies 

English colonies? How did the French occupy the territory which they 
claimed? Explain carefully why the English and the French colonists 
were sure to come into conflict in North America. Why was it natural 
that the English should pass over the Alleghanies into the Ohio Val- 
ley? Why did the French wish to prevent this? Explain carefully 
why the French were unable to check the westward advance of the 
English. Tell what you can about King William's War. About 
Queen Anne's War. About King George's War. 

Tell what you can of the nature and results of the Seven Years 1 
War in Europe. How was the French and Indian War in America 
connected with the Seven Years 1 War in Europe? Why did the French 
build a series of forts from Lake Erie to the site of the present city of 
Pittsburg? Why did the English object to this? Tell all you can 
about Washington's expedition against Fort Duquesne. What was the 
effect of Washington's defeat on the Indians in the Ohio Valley? 
What was its effect on the English ? Explain carefully why the Eng- 
lish colonists were so slow in preparing for war. Give a careful dis- 
cussion of Braddock's march and defeat. (Each pupil should draw a 
map that will show the position of all the French forts in the West, 
and the place where Braddock was defeated.) Describe the result of 
the English expeditions against Forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point. 

What was the effect of all these defeats on the English? Describe 
the success of Montcalm in 1756 and 1757. (Each pupil should 
draw a map that will illustrate all the battles fought in Canada and 
on the northern frontier of the English colonies.) Give a careful 
discussion of William Pitt and his war policy. Describe the taking 
of Louisburg. How did the capture of Louisburg aid the English? 
Describe fully the capture of Quebec. Compare the French general 
Montcalm with the English general Wolfe in character, ability, and 
courage. What was the effect of the war on the history of America? 
What was the direct effect on the English colonists? (Each pupil 
should draw a map that will show all the changes in territory that were 
caused in America by this war.) 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Compare the French and English settlements in location, extent, 
purpose of settlement, character, and population. Discuss the rela- 
tions of the French with the Indians. Compare the attitude of the 



Questions and Topics 121 

French toward the Indians with that of the English. Discuss the 
enmity of the Iroquois to the French and its effect on colonial history. 
Describe the conditions which made war between the French and 
English inevitable. Discuss the conditions leading to English success 
in this struggle. Discuss in a general way King William's, Queen 
Anne's, and King George's wars. Discuss the Seven Years 1 War 
in Europe and its connection with the French and Indian War in 
America. Discuss the scope of the French and Indian War. Describe 
the work of Washington in this war. Discuss the work of Pitt. Dis- 
cuss the results of the war, including territorial changes and political 
effects. 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

INSTITUTIONAL LIFE IN THE COLONIES 

INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS 

I. Commercial Industries 
i. The Southern Colonies 
(a) Products 

(i) Tobacco 

(2) Rice 

(3) Indigo and Cotton 

(4) Other Products 
(<5) Plantations 

(1) Relation to Growth of Cities and Manufactures 

(2) Relation to Growth of Slavery 

2. New England 
(a) Occupations 

(1) Farming: Relation to Topography, Climate, and Soil 

(2) Manufactures 

(3) The Fish Industry: Trade and Commerce 
(fi) Relation of Physical Conditions to Slavery 

3. The Middle Colonies 
(a) Occupations 

(1) Agriculture: Relation to Topography, Climate, and 

Soil 

(2) Manufactures: Opposition of England 

(3) Trade and Commerce 

(/;) Relation of Industrial Conditions to the Growth of Slavery 

4. Conclusions as to Influence of Topography, Climate, and Soil 
II. Professional Life 

1. The Ministry 

(a) The Ministry in New England 

(b) The Ministry in the Middle Colonies 
(V) The Ministry in the South 

2. Medicine 

3. Law 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 123 

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 

I. The Southern Colonies 

1 . Population : Classes of Society 
(a) The Negro Slave 

(fr) Indented White Servants 

(c) The Middle and Upper Classes 

2. Life on the Plantations 

3. Dress of the Upper Classes 

4. Amusements 
II. New England 

1 . Classes of Society 
(a) Slaves 

{b) Indented Servants 

(Y) The Middle and Upper Classes 

2. Social Distinctions : Effect on New England Life 

3. Dress and Amusements 
[II. The Middle Colonies 

1. Classes of Society 

(a) Slaves 

(b) Indented Servants 

(c) The Middle Class 

(d) The Upper Class 

2. The Manors of the Hudson and the Mohawk 

3. Dress, Amusements, and Social Life 

(a) In the Country and Small Towns 

(b) In New York and Philadelphia 



GOVERNMENT 
I. Local Government 

1. Divisions of Government : Growth and Changes 

2. The County, Township, and Parish 

(a) The County at the Present Time : its Powers and Duties 

(b) Importance of the County in the Colonies: Growth of its 

Powers 

(1) The County in New England: the Township 

(2) The County in South Carolina : the Parish and Dis- 

trict 



i 24 The Thirteen Colonies 

(3) The County in Virginia 

(4) The County in the Middle Colonies 

(c) Comparison of County. Township, and Parish 
3. Colonial Influence on Local Government 
II. State and Colonial Government 

1. State Government 

(a) Relation to National and Local Government 

(b) Departments of Government 

(1) Legislative Department 

(2) Executive Department 

(3) Judicial Department 

(c) In what Respects State, National, and Local Government 

Differ 

2. Colonial Government : Mode of Treatment 
(<?) Departments 

(1) Legislative Department 

(2) Executive Department : Classes of Colonial Govern- 

ment 

(3) Judicial Department 

(b) The National Authority 

(c) Relation to Present State Government 

RELIGION 

I. Religious Liberty at the Present Time 

II. Religious Persecution in Europe 

III. Religious Persecution in the Colonies 

IV. Churches have not been responsible for Religious Persecution 
V. Religious Liberty in the United States: Causes of its Growth 



EDUCATION 

I. Comparison of Colonial Schools with those of the Present Time 
II. Condition of Schools in England 
III. The Southern Colonies 

1. Work of the Ministers 

2. Effect of Plantation Life : Opposition of Royal Governors 

3. Schools: College of William and Mary 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 125 

IV. New England 

1. Influence of the Puritan Church and its Ministers 

2. First Law establishing Public Schools: Influence of Church on 

Legislation 

3. Colleges 

V. The Middle Colonies 

1. New York and New Jersey 

2. Pennsylvania and Delaware: Influence of Franklin on Educa- 

tion 

3. Colleges 



INSTITUTIONAL LIFE IN THE COLONIES 
INTRODUCTORY 

148. Institutional Life : the Five Institutions. — Five in- 
stitutions or organizations exist among the people of every 
nation, state, city, and community. They are business, or 
industrial life ; society, or social life ; the state, or govern- 
ment ; the church, or religion ; and the school, or education. 
These five institutions, in one form or another, may always 
be found, even among savages. All that any community, 
or its individuals, can think or do, must be thought or done 
along one or more of these lines. They include the entire 
life and work of every person and community. 

149. Relation of the Individual to these Five Institutions. 
— Among civilized people these institutions are plainly 
marked, and every person bears some relation to each of 
them. The nature of his work in relation to one or more 
of them determines to what extent he is useful or harmful 
to the community, state, or nation. The useful, intelligent 
citizen follows some business or occupation successfully ; 
he contributes to the happiness and social life of the people 
in whose society he lives ; he takes an active interest in gov- 
ernment or politics ; he takes an active interest in ethical 



126 The Thirteen Colonies 

or religious questions ; and he interests himself in the edu- 
cational affairs of his community. 

150. Importance of the Study of Institutional Life. — 
What is true of an individual in this respect is true also 
of a nation. It is very important, therefore, in studying 
the history of a nation to study carefully its institutional 
life. A nation should be judged not so much by the 
battles which it has fought, or by the territory which it 
owns, as by the condition of its institutions. So far we 
have been studying the colonies mainly as related to their 
political history, or the institution of government, which 
includes among other things the wars fought and the 
territory secured. While it is of importance to learn 
about the institution of government, it is of even more 
importance to learn about the other four institutions. 
We shall now study the conditions of these four insti- 
tutions in the colonies, and review the institution of gov- 
ernment. 

151. Effect of Topography, Climate, and Soil on Industries. 
— In the study of the growth and development of the 
nation the difference between the topography, climate, and 
soil of the several sections deserves the most careful con- 
sideration. This difference determined to a certain extent 
that the South should be, until after the American Civil 
War, an almost strictly agricultural country ; that much of 
the land should be divided into large plantations; that 
almost the entire time and energy of the southern people 
should be devoted to raising tobacco, rice, indigo, and 
cotton ; and that the labor of the South should be per- 
formed by negro slaves. It also determined to a certain 
extent that the people of the northern colonies should 
devote a large part of their time and energy to commerce 
and manufacturing; that the agricultural land should, be 









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128 The Thirteen Colonies 

divided into a large number of small farms ; that many 
different kinds of agricultural products should be raised ; 
that the labor of the North should be performed by free- 
men instead of by slaves ; and that the social and political 
conditions of the North should be quite different from 
those of the South. 

152. Effect of Topography, Climate, and Soil on Slavery. 
— The difference between the topography, climate, and soil 
of the North and the South caused this great difference be- 
tween the industrial, social, and political conditions of the 
two sections, by making slavery very profitable in the South 
and of very little profit in the North. Because slave labor 
could not be used with much profit in the North, slavery 
soon ceased to exist there ; and because slave labor could 
be used with great profit in the South, slavery soon became 
firmly established in that section. The fact that slavery 
existed in the South and did not exist in the North caused 
the industrial, social, and political conditions of the two 
sections to become more and more unlike and to drift 
farther and farther apart, until the American Civil War 
destroyed slavery. It follows, therefore, that differences 
in topography, climate, and soil caused slavery to exist in 
the South and not in the North ; that slavery caused the 
industrial, social, and political conditions of the North and 
South to become more and more unlike ; that the great 
difference between the industrial, social, and political con- 
ditions of the North and South caused the Civil War ; and 
that the Civil War, by destroying slavery, has caused these 
conditions in the two sections to become more and more 
alike, and has thus unified the nation. From all this it 
becomes plain that the difference between the topography, 
climate, and soil of the North and South, and the different 
industrial conditions which this difference brought about, 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 1 29 

deserve the most careful consideration of the student of 
our country's history. 

153. The Topography, Climate, and Soil of the Southern 
Section and of New England are distinctly different. By far 
the larger part of the country formerly included in the 
southern colonies and in all the southern states that border 
on the Gulf of Mexico is level, in fact almost flat. This 
country is drained by broad rivers which flow into the sea 
or into the Gulf. The soil is naturally very rich ; the rain- 
fall is abundant; the climate in summer is very hot, and 
with exception of Maryland and the northern part of Vir- 
ginia, mild and pleasant in winter. The surface of New 
England is made up largely of hills and mountains, and is 
drained by short, rapid rivers. The soil naturally is not 
very fertile, and the climate in the winter is cold and severe. 
Both the broad, fertile plains of the South, and the hills, 
mountains, and small valleys of New England, were covered 
with a great, dense forest. 

154. The Topography, Climate, and Soil of the Middle 
Colonies. — The conditions of the topography and climate 
of this section, which embraced the colonies of New York, 
New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware, are about mid- 
way between those of the southern section on the one hand 
and of New England on the other. The soil, unlike that 
of New England and like that of the southern region, is 
rich. The rainfall is abundant, which is true also of both 
the other sections. The climate is not so cold as that of 
New England, and not so mild and pleasant as that of the 
southern territory. The surface of the land is not divided 
into a large number of small valleys, as is the case in New 
England ; neither does it consist of broad, extensive plains, 
as is the case in the southern section. 



i 3 o 



The Thirteen Colonies 



INDUSTRIAL CONDITION 



155. What constitutes Industrial Life; Method of Treat- 
ment. — The institution affected most directly by topog- 
raphy, climate, and soil is business, or industrial life. 
Farming; engaging in some profession, as law, medicine, 
or the ministry ; mining ; manufacturing ; the carrying on 
of trade or commerce ; and all other things which men do 
to make a living, comprise the institution which is called 
business, or industrial life. In order to add clearness to 
the treatment, the professions named above will be treated 
under the subhead, Professional Life in the Colonies. The 
other factors of Industrial life in the colonies will be 
treated under the subhead, Commercial Industries. Each 
of the three groups of colonies will be taken up separately, 
because industrial conditions in each group differed from 
those in the other two groups, and this difference had an 
important effect on some of the other institutions. 



Commercial Industries 

TJie Soiitlicm Colonies 

156. Tobacco: Discovery and Use by the Whites. — To- 
bacco is, and has been from early colonial times, one of the 
chief southern products. It was the first of these leading 
products to be raised in the southern colonies. Tobacco is 
a native of the New World. White men had never seen it 
until America was discovered. The first settlers of Vir- 
ginia saw the Indians smoking the dry leaves. The Eng- 
lish tried it and liked it so well that they took some to 
England, where the habit of smoking soon became very 
popular. Never before nor since then did any product 



Institutional Life in the Colonies i 3 1 

win such rapid favor as did tobacco in England and in 
the rest of Europe. The smoking of tobacco became the 
fashion, and the demand for the leaves of this new plant 
constantly and rapidly increased. 

157. Cultivation and Exportation of Tobacco. — As the 
tobacco plant was not raised in Europe, the supply had to 
be secured from the New World. The settlers of James- 
town saw at once that they could sell for a good price all 
that they could raise. Its regular cultivation was begun 
about 161 2, and by 1614 it had become the main, in fact, 
almost the only product of the colony- All the colonists 
raised it. It was planted and grown even in the streets of 
Jamestown. Jamestown might have been abandoned had 
it not been for the production of tobacco. Thus it may be 
said that this new plant saved the first settlement in Vir- 
ginia. Until about the time of the Revolution, tobacco was 
practically the only product raised in Virginia in quantities 
large enough to export. This was also true of Maryland 
until the close of the French and Indian War. The north- 
ern part of North Carolina raised and exported a consider- 
able quantity of tobacco. In 1770 Virginia was exporting 
about five million dollars' worth each year, and Maryland 
almost one half million dollars' worth. 

158. Tobacco as Currency. — The whole life of these 
two colonies centered around its production. In order to 
keep the price fair and uniform, laws were made for the 
purpose of regulating its production and the quality that 
should be exported. This was necessary because tobacco 
was used as the money of these two colonies. A man's 
wealth was counted in pounds of tobacco. He sold his 
goods for it and paid for them with it. Laws, however, 
could not regulate the price of tobacco. Sometimes it was 
high, sometimes low, according to the size of the crop and 



I 3 2 



The Thirteen Colonies 



the demand for it in Europe. Thus it worked a great hard- 
ship on many people. When prices were high, the creditor 
was injured ; when prices were low, the debtor was injured. 
If a man paid a debt when the price of tobacco was high, 
it required much less tobacco to pay it than when the price 
was very low. 

159. Rice, Indigo, and Cotton. — Rice, indigo, and later 
cotton were the three principal products of North Carolina, 
South Carolina, and Georgia. These three products were 
as important in the three most southern colonies as was 
tobacco in Virginia and Maryland. Like tobacco, they 
caused the growth of large plantations and were the prin- 
cipal articles of export. 

160. Introduction of Rice into South Carolina. — In 1694 
rice was introduced into South Carolina from the island of 
Madagascar. It was raised extensively in North Carolina 
and later in Georgia, but South Carolina led in its produc- 




Chaklestun at the Time of the Revoluth 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 133 

tion. The quality of the rice raised in these three southern 
colonies was tlu best in the world. Many large planta- 
tions were devoted almost exclusively to its production, 
and large quantities were exported. For a long time the 
price of rice was high, and the planters became rich rapidly. 
Many of the large planters in South Carolina lived in 
Charleston, and employed men who were called overseers, 
to look after the plantations and manage the slaves. The 
fact that most of those who owned the large plantations lived 
in Charleston caused it to become the center of commerce 
and social life in the far South. At the time of the Revo- 
lution it was the largest, wealthiest, and most important city 
in all the southern colonies. 

After a while, about 1740, so much rice was raised that 
the price fell, and its production became less profitable 
than in former years. 

161. Indigo and Cotton. — The large planters then began 
to raise indigo, which was introduced from the West Indies. 
Its production increased rapidly, and by 1750 the indigo 
and rice crops in the southern colonies were of about equal 
value. Some cotton was raised in South Carolina and 
Georgia, but very little for export. 

162. Invention of the Cotton Gin. — It was not until after 
the Revolution, and until after the invention of the cotton 
gin, a machine for removing the seed from the fiber, that 
cotton became the one great product of the South. After 
the invention of this device, the immense production of 
cotton tended to displace all other products, and caused 
the large plantations, which had been created by the 
extensive production of rice and indigo, to increase rather 
than diminish in size. 

163. Other Products. — Among other things produced in 
the southern colonies were wheat, rosin, turpentine, hogs, 



134 The Thirteen Colonies 

and cattle. Just before the Revolution, Virginia and Mary- 
land each produced considerable wheat for exportation in 
addition to supplying enough for home use. The three 
other southern colonies together produced enough for 
home use, but little, if any, for export. North Carolina 
produced for export considerable quantities of turpentine 
and rosin. It had a much larger variety of farm and other 
products than any of the other southern colonies, and it 
contained a larger number of small farms and fewer large 
plantations than any of the others. 

164. Effect of Large Plantations on Growth of Cities and 
Manufactures. — The extensive production of tobacco in 
Virginia and Maryland, and of indigo, rice, and cotton in 
the other southern colonies, is closely related on the one 
side to topography, climate, and soil, and on. the other side 
to slavery and other industrial and social conditions. The 
climate and soil of the southern colonies were well suited 
to the extensive production of these staples, and the broad, 
flat plain encouraged the growth of large plantations, each 
under the control of one man. The large number of rivers 
running through these rich plains made it easy for most of 
the plantations to maintain their own warehouses. The 
three or four hundred vessels engaged,. in carrying the 
tobacco of Virginia and Maryland to the markets of 
Europe and other countries usually called at the ware- 
houses on the different plantations along the rivers and 
bought the tobacco directly from the planters. This same 
plan was followed, to a large extent, with the indigo, rice, 
and cotton of the. other southern colonies, except that a 
large amount of these products was floated down the 
smaller streams on barges to central points on the larger 
rivers. Especially was this true in South Carolina, where 
Charleston was the main point of distribution. The vessels 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 135 



that came to the plantations for the tobacco, rice, indigo, 
and cotton brought the clothes, farming machinery, tools, 
and all the other things which the planter needed but 
could not or did not produce on his own plantation. This 
habit of the planters, of buying from and selling to the 
vessels that came from Europe or the northern colonies, 




Tobacco Rolling 

The cask is filled with tobacco, a pole is thrust through it, harness is attached to 
the ends of the pole, and the cask is drawn to the ship 

was one of the main reasons why there were no large cities 
in the southern colonies. Each large plantation was a little 
world in itself, and the planter and his slaves devoted their 
time to raising tobacco, indigo, rice, or cotton. As the planter 
bought almost everything he needed directly from the north- 
ern colonies or from Europe, there was no inducement for 
towns to grow, or for men to engage in making or manu- 
facturing even many of the common necessities of life. 

165. Relation of Plantations to Growth of Slavery. — 
When the tobacco was planted, and when it was gathered 



136 The Thirteen Colonies 

and prepared for market, a large amount of labor was re- 
quired, and the same was true even to a greater extent in 
the production of indigo, rice, and cotton. Slave labor was 
cheap and well suited to the work. When a Dutch vessel 
in 1619 brought a few negro slaves to Jamestown, most of 
them were bought for work on the tobacco plantations. 
It was very difficult to secure white labor in early Virginia 
and Maryland, and still more difficult in the far southern 
colonies. The planter soon came to depend almost en- 
tirely on the negro slave for labor, and as the plantations 
increased in number and size, the demand for slave labor 
became more and more urgent, and the number of slaves 
increased rapidly. 

166. Proportion of White and Slave Population. — The 
records regarding population in the southern colonies are 
not very reliable, but it is safe to say there were at the 
time of the Revolution about as many slaves in these five 
colonies as white people, the number of each being be- 
tween five hundred thousand and six hundred thousand. 

New England 

167. Farming in New England. — The people of New 
England, unlike those of the southern colonies, did not 
secure the larger part of their wealth from the extensive 
productions of a few staples. The hills and mountains 
divided the country into small valleys, and this alone was 
a strong factor in preventing the growth of large planta- 
tions. But in addition to this, the soil, as a rule, was poor, 
and the climate severe and disagreeable in the winter and 
spring, although pleasant in the summer and autumn. 
Because of these conditions the farms naturally were small 
as compared with the large plantations of the South. 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 137 

Farmers had to work very hard in order to raise a good 
crop of anything. With the exception of Connecticut, 
it was difficult for any New England colony to raise more 
food than it required for its own use, but the variety of 
products was much greater than in the southern colonies. 
In Connecticut, especially in the Connecticut Valley, the 
soil was very good. In addition to supplying the home 
demand, this colony exported hay, grain, and cattle. 

168. Other New England Industries ; Manufacturing. — 
These conditions made it almost impossible for New 
England to become wealthy and prosperous from farming. 
The people of New England, therefore, devoted a large 
part of their time and energy to fishing, to commerce, and 
to manufacturing. Although the policy of England ham- 
pered the growth of manufacturing, many things were 
made, and the foundation was laid for the great manufac- 
turing establishments that sprang up after the Revolution. 
Almost every man was of necessity a mechanic, and learned 
to work with poor tools with remarkable success. The 
result of this was noticed by foreign travelers, whom the 
New England villages reminded of Europe, and who noted 
the streets lined with shops where every form of trade was 
busily plied. The New England farmer, as a rule, made 
many of his tools and much of his furniture. There were 
many shops devoted entirely to the making of these things. 
The women spun the flax and wool on spinning wheels, 
wove the cloth on hand looms, and made it into clothing. 
The swift, running rivers furnished the power for thou- 
sands of sawmills and gristmills. The sawmills pre- 
pared lumber not only for home use but also for 
exportation, and the gristmills ground some of the wheat 
and corn raised in the other colonies as well as that raised 
in New England. From all this it will be seen that while 



'38 



The Thirteen Colonies 



the New England colonies contained no large manufac- 
turing establishments, they made a large number of things 
in many small shops. After the Revolution, when the 
conditions were more favorable, these small shops grad- 
ually developed into large manufacturing establishments. 




John Winthrop's Mill, New London, Connecticut 

169. Fisheries. — One great source of wealth in New 
England was the fisheries. Although the coast was rugged, 
wild, and stormy, the colonists caught an immense number 
of fish. The whale and the cod fisheries were especially 
profitable. By 1750 the value of the fish caught each year 
was more than one and one half million dollars. Much of 
the catch was consumed at home, and much was shipped 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 139 

to Europe and to the West Indies. Fish and fish oil were 
the principal articles of export, although small quantities 
of other products, such as lumber, hay, rum, grain, and 
cattle, were also exported. 

170. Foreign Commerce. — But for every dollar's worth 
of goods exported there were usually more than two dol- 
lars' worth imported. This condition of trade would soon 
ruin any country, because a country cannot long buy twice 
as many dollars' worth of goods as it sells and still remain 
prosperous, unless it has some special conditions in its favor. 
The New England colonists met this adverse condition 
of exports and imports by devoting a great deal of their 
attention to commerce. New England built the best ships 
in the world. She built all her own vessels and many for 
other nations. She carried nearly all her own exports in her 
own ships; she carried most of the exports and imports of the 
other colonies ; and New England ships, manned by New 
England sailors, became an important factor in the com- 
merce of the West Indies and of Europe. Just before 
the Revolution, New England had more than a thousand 
vessels engaged in foreign commerce, and more than two 
thousand engaged in the fisheries and domestic commerce. 
In spite of the fact that her soil was poor, and that she 
imported two dollars' worth of goods for every dollar's 
worth that she exported, the wealth derived from her 
fisheries and from her extensive commerce, together with 
the industry and thrift of her people, made New England 
wealthy, and caused the growth of many prosperous towns 
and cities. Although by nature she was poor, her people 
made her rich. 

171. Relation of Physical Conditions to Slavery. — 
It is interesting to consider what the results in New 
England might have been had the physical conditions 



14° The Thirteen Colonies 

been the same as in the southern colonies. What would 
the result have been if, instead of the hilly country, poor 
soil, and cold winters, New England had had a warm, 
pleasant climate, and had consisted of broad, fertile plains 
suited to the extensive production of a few staples, such as 
tobacco, rice, and cotton ? The chances are that the people 
of New England would have devoted much less attention to 
the fisheries and to commerce, and much more attention to 
the extensive production of those staples that would bring 
them the most money. The chances are that the country 
would have been divided into large plantations, and that 
upon these plantations would have been a large slave 
population. At one time slavery existed in all the New 
England colonies, but slave labor could not be used with 
profit on the small farms, in the fisheries, or in commerce, 
and for this reason it was gradually abolished. There 
was very little moral sentiment in New England against 
slavery until long after the Revolution. 

The Middle Colonies 

172. Agriculture in the Middle Colonies. — As has 

already been stated, the soil of the middle colonies 
was rich, and the climate was neither so mild as that 
of the southern colonies, nor so cold and severe as that 
of New England. The surface of the country east of the 
Appalachian Mountains, where nearly all the people in the 
middle colonies lived, was not divided into so many nor such 
small valleys as was the case in New England, nor did it 
consist of broad plains, as in the southern colonies. These 
conditions naturally would give rise to many prosperous 
farms, and to the raising of a large variety of farm prod- 
ucts. This was true. Nearly all kinds of farm products 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 141 

were raised, but no one product was raised on a vast scale, 
as was true in the case of tobacco, rice, and indigo in the 
southern colonies. The fact that the soil and climate were 
suited to many products tended to prevent the growth of 
large plantations and the extensive production of only a 
few staples. Wheat was the chief product, and much was 
produced for exportation. Other farm produce also was 
raised and sold in large quantities. All the middle colonies 
raised more cattle than were required for home use. Taken 
all in all, the condition of agriculture was better in the 
middle colonies than in the others. Especially was this 
true in Pennsylvania, where farming was carried on in a 
better and more systematic way than in any other colony. 
173. Growth of Manufacturing. — The middle colonies, 
like New England, were beginning to manufacture vari- 
ous articles. There were no large manufacturing estab- 
lishments, such as exist to-day in the United States ; 
but the people of these colonies, like those of New 
England, were making the beginnings and laying the 
foundations for the great manufacturing industries of the 
present time. The beginnings were small, but they indi- 
cated clearly the desire and the ability of the people to 
manufacture the articles which they needed instead of 
importing all of them from England or from some other 
country. In New York, cloth, hats, and glass were manu- 
factured, but not to any great extent. Sawmills and 
gristmills were numerous, and did a large business. In 
Pennsylvania many articles were manufactured. A large 
part of the clothing worn was made in the colony, and 
some was exported. Iron ore was mined, made into pig 
iron, and exported, the amount during some of the years 
between 1750 and 1765 reaching nearly four thousand tons. 
Ships were built in Philadelphia, and the gristmills of Penn- 



142 The Thirteen Colonies 

sylvania made into flour much of the wheat raised in Mary- 
land and Virginia. 

174. Opposition of England to Manufacturing. — England 
did all she could to prevent the growth of manufacturing 
in the colonies. Men in England who were engaged in 
manufacturing induced the English Parliament to pass 
laws interfering with, and even prohibiting, the manufac- 
ture of certain articles in the colonies. These laws, as a 
rule, were not obeyed by the colonists. They indicate, 
however, a selfish and short-sighted policy on the part of 
those who had control of Parliament, and they served to 
irritate the colonists. It should be remembered, however, 
that all nations, at that time, believed colonies should be 
of value to the commerce and industry of the mother 
country, even if it did result in some injury to the colonies. 
There was some good reason for this. The people of the 
mother country were compelled to help protect the colonies 
from the attacks of other nations, and they had a right to 
expect some compensation in return. Just what a colony 
should give in return for this protection was a question 
never solved satisfactorily to all concerned. 

175. Trade and Commerce. — Boston, New York, and 
Philadelphia were the three most important commercial 
cities in the colonies. At the time of the Revolution the 
commerce of New York amounted to about four and one 
half million dollars annually ; about five hundred vessels 
and between six and seven thousand seamen were em- 
ployed. The commerce of Philadelphia, at the same time, 
was worth more than five million dollars yearly ; and more 
than five hundred vessels and seven thousand seamen were 
engaged in this industry. The ships of New York and 
Philadelphia carried goods to nearly all the civilized nations 
of the world, bringing back goods in return. The goods 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 143 

imported from other countries were usually manufactured 
articles, such as clothing, crockery, tools, furniture, etc. 
The goods exported were fish, furs, lumber, some minerals, 
and products of the farm. Pennsylvania, and more espe- 
cially New York, carried on a very profitable fur trade 
with the Indians. These furs were an important article of 
export. 

176. Relation of Industrial Conditions to the Growth of 
Slavery. — The industrial conditions in the middle colonies 
made slave labor of more value than in New England, but 
of much less value than in the South. There was a large 
number of prosperous farms in the middle colonies, but 
they were small as compared with the large plantations of 
the South, and were devoted to raising products of great 
variety. The condition of agriculture was due to topog- 
raphy, climate, and soil. As has been already stated, 
slave labor could not be used with much profit on small 
farms, nor in manufacturing and commerce. For these 
reasons the middle colonies had a much smaller number 
of slaves than the southern colonies, and because farming 
was more important, and climate as a rule milder than in 
New England, the middle colonies, especially the more 
southern of them, had a larger slave population than did 
Massachusetts and her sister colonies. In none of the 
middle colonies, however, was the slave population more 
than ten per cent of the total population, while in New 
England it was less than three per cent of the total 
population. 

177. Opposition to Slavery on Moral Grounds. — The 
Quakers were opposed to slavery as a matter of principle, 
but there was no other important class of people in any 
of the colonies that opposed slavery on moral grounds. 
There were, of course, a few men and women in all the 



144 The Thirteen Colonies 

colonies who opposed slavery because they thought it mor- 
ally wrong, but their influence on this question was of very 
little importance. The growth of slavery was not deter- 
mined by sentiment. After the Revolution, and even 
before, slowly and gradually there grew up in the middle 
colonies and in New England a moral sentiment against 
it ; but a discussion of this phase of the subject must be 
postponed for the present. 

178. Growth of Slavery controlled by Topography, Cli- 
mate, and Soil. — In closing this brief study of industrial 
conditions in the colonies, it is of importance again to note 
carefully that topography, climate, and soil controlled the 
growth of slavery by determining the industrial conditions. 
Slavery became an important part of the southern plan- 
tation life. After the invention of the cotton gin had 
increased greatly the production of cotton, slavery became 
still more valuable, and hence still more firmly rooted in 
southern society. Natural conditions in the North, by 
making slavery of but little value to the people, made free 
labor the basis of industrial life. These differences in the 
industrial conditions of the North and South caused the 
two sections to develop along different lines, and to grow 
farther and farther apart. It thus becomes clear that the 
difference in topography, climate, and soil of the two sec- 
tions, by determining their industrial conditions, controlled 
the growth of slavery, and hence was the fundamental 
cause of the American Civil War. 

PROFESSIONAL LIFE 

179. Medicine and Law. — At the present time in the 
United States medicine and law are two of the most 
respected and honored of the professions. Many of the 
ablest and best men are either lawyers or doctors. Some 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 



H5 



of the best institutions of learning are devoted entirely to 
training men for these professions. Lawyers and doctors, 
however, have not always held this high position and been 
thus respected. In early colonial times, except in Penn- 
sylvania, the professions of law and medicine amounted to 




Jonathan Edwards 
One of the Ablest of Colonial Theologians and Writers 

but very little. Before 1750 there were very few men of 
much ability who devoted their entire time to either of 
these professions. 

180. The Ministry in New England. — But it was differ- 
ent with the profession of the ministry. The ministers, as 



146 The Thirteen Colonies 

a rule, were well educated and had more influence than the 
members of any other profession or class. The ministers of 
early New England were among the ablest in all the colo- 
nies. This was due to the fact that the Puritans came to 
the New World in congregations, and because of their reli- 
gious beliefs. The ministers were the leaders in these 
ideas, and were looked up to by the members of their con- 
gregations with a respect that amounted almost to rever- 
ence. In addition to this leadership in religion, they 
were nearly all well educated, most of them being college 
graduates. 

181. Relation of Church and State. — Moreover, in the 
Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, and New Haven colonies, 
the church and state were closely united, and the ideas of 
the ministers, therefore, usually controlled the acts of the 
legislature. There is no instance in history where the 
ministers of any church had so much real influence and 
leadership over the people as they did in the early history 
of these three colonies. After Massachusetts became a 
royal province, a change gradually took place. Fully half 
of the people in Massachusetts by this time were not Puri- 
tans, and when the new charter permitted men to vote and 
hold office, no matter what their religious ideas were, the 
ministers lost much of their influence over the legislature, 
the governors, and the courts. They retained their leader- 
ship, however, in education and literature, and thus still 
exerted great influence. 

182. The Ministry in the Middle Colonies. — In the 
middle colonies the ministers of the different churches 
ranked high. As a rule they were able, well educated, 
honest, and energetic men, who impressed their characters 
in many ways on the life of the people. The Quaker 
ministers, the ministers of the Dutch Reformed church, 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 147 

of the Presbyterian church, of the Congregational church, 
and of the other churches were leaders of the communi- 
ties in which they lived, and were most persistent in their 
endeavors to establish schools and to improve the gen- 
eral condition of the people. Their live, active work in 
almost every community was of great value, and was by 
far the most important factor in improving the moral and 
intellectual conditions of the mass of the people. 

183. The Ministry in the South. — In most of the south- 
ern colonies the Episcopal church was the state church, 
and in Virginia and Maryland it was supported by public 
taxes. A man was compelled to pay taxes to support this 
church, whether he was a member of it or not. In all the 
other colonies — except in some of the New England colo- 
nies for a short time — the minister was supported by the 
members of his church, and no public money was used for 
this purpose. There were worthy and able ministers in 
the South who belonged to the Episcopal church, but it so 
happened that some of those sent over from England were 
those who had been unsuccessful at home. Under the 
conditions prevailing, the ministers of the Established 
church in the southern colonies exerted less influence 
than the ministers of the other colonies. This was true 
except in South Carolina, where the Episcopal ministers 
were usually well educated and did good work. 

184. After the Revolution, when the public funds were 
no longer used to support the Established church, it de- 
clined rapidly for a while in Virginia and Maryland. It 
soon, however, began to build up on a solid basis. The 
members of the church refused to support those ministers 
who were not able and efficient, and as their salaries were 
no longer paid from the public funds, they were compelled 
to go into some other line of work. A better class of men 



148 The Thirteen Colonies 

took their places, and the church secured more influence 
than ever before, and became a strong factor in uplifting 
society. The ministers of the other churches in the 
southern colonies, like those in the middle colonies, were 
as a rule able men, usually well educated. They did 
what they could to establish schools, but were not suc- 
cessful. They could have accomplished much more in 
Virginia had they not been persecuted and driven from 
the colony. 

185. Status of the Medical Profession. — As has been 
stated before, medicine as a profession amounted to but 
very little in the colonies, especially before 1750. This 
profession developed earliest and most rapidly in Pennsyl- 
vania, and in this respect Massachusetts ranked second. 
From the very first in Pennsylvania there were some 
physicians who had secured their educations in the uni- 
versities of England and were well qualified to practice 
medicine. These did all they could to advance the pro- 
fession. In 1734 the first medical work in the colonies 
was produced. This was written by Dr. Cadwalader from 
London, who later gave a course of lectures on anatomy 
and physiology, and in 1750 became one of the first physi- 
cians of the hospital in Philadelphia. In 1760 Dr. Shep- 
pen and Dr. Morgan established in Philadelphia a medical 
college, which five years later became a part of the Uni- 
versity of Pennsylvania. There were fewer quacks in 
Pennsylvania than in any of the other colonies. In New 
England, and especially in the southern colonies, druggists 
and barbers often practiced medicine and surgery along 
with their regular occupations. Owing to the lack of 
special training of physicians, the people had but little 
respect for the medical profession. There were but few 
good doctors in the southern colonies. 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 149 

186. Ministers as Physicians. — Many of the ministers 
of early New England had studied medicine before leaving 
England. They frequently acted as doctors, and were 
better than most of those engaged in the profession. 
After these early ministers died, the profession for a time 
fell into the hands of quacks who knew little about medi- 
cine. But the ability of the doctors soon improved, and 
the profession became more and more respected. Just 
before the Revolution there were many able physicians in 
New England, and they were highly respected. New 

England, however, was be- 
hind Pennsylvania in the 
matter of hospitals and med- 
ical schools. 

187. Growth of the Legal 
Profession. — The profes- 
sion of law was of more im- 
portance in New England 
and Pennsylvania than in 
any of the other colonies, 
just as was the case with 
the profession of medicine. 
Virginia, however, just be- 
fore the Revolution, had as 
many good lawyers as New 
England, and more than 

Pennsylvania or any of the 
Patrick Henry . , . 1 

other colonies, ror a long 

time in New England, and for a longer time in Virginia, 

there were so few able lawyers that the profession could 

hardly be said to exist at all. In Pennsylvania, on the 

other hand, there was a number of fairly good lawyers 

from the very first, and the profession was held in high 




150 The Thirteen Colonies 

esteem, which was not the case in any of the other colonies. 
From about 1750 the profession of law in New England 
was represented by a large number of very excellent law- 
yers, and a little later the same was true in Virginia. 

188. Lawyers during the Revolution ; as Framers of the 
Constitution. — Among the New England lawyers at this 
time were John Adams, Samuel Ouincy, Samuel Gridley, and 
James Otis ; among those in Virginia were Thomas Jeffer- 
son, Patrick Henry, and George Mason. These, and other 
lawyers and statesmen of great ability, were just in time to 
prepare the colonies for and to guide them through the 
Revolution, and to help put into effect the Constitution of 
the United States. Many of them made world-wide repu- 
tations. To their wisdom and common sense the people 
of the United States owe a great debt of gratitude. 

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 

189. What Constitutes Social Life ; Relation to other In- 
stitutions. — The amusements of people, the social relations 
among the various classes of society, treatment of neighbors, 
customs of dress, daily manner of speaking and acting to- 
ward others, and all other things which interest or amuse 
men in a social way, constitute the social life of a people. 
Many of these social factors are closely related to indus- 
trial conditions. It will be seen from this discussion on 
the institution of social life, that the social conditions in 
the southern colonies, in New England, and in the middle 
colonies differed, and that this difference was due largely 
to the difference in the industrial conditions in these groups 
of colonies. The discussion already given on industrial 
conditions will, therefore, bear a close relation to the dis- 
cussion on social conditions which follows. In fact, the 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 151 

more closely the history of any nation is studied, the 
plainer it becomes that its five institutions are closely re- 
lated. The social conditions of a nation are closely related 
to each of its other four institutions — business, govern- 
ment, religion, and education. Therefore, when studying 





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Colonial Mansion 

any of the five institutions in any nation, it is of importance 
to understand the relation of that institution to each of the 
other four. 

190. Conditions affecting Social Life. — It is not easy for 
the boys and girls and the men and women of to-day to 
realize how the people in the colonies lived, dressed, and 
amused themselves. This is due largely to the difference 
between the conditions which existed in the colonies and 
those which exist at the present time. It therefore becomes 
necessary to note carefully some of the conditions which 
made social life in the colonies differ so much from the 
social life of to-day. Among the more important condi- 
tions that affected social life in the colonies were the new- 



152 The Thirteen Colonies 

ness of the country, the poor means of transportation and 
communication, and, in the southern colonies, the large 
plantations and mode of farming. The people in the colo- 
nies lived in the edge of a mighty forest that covered the 
entire country. At times this forest must have seemed to 
the lonely settlers as vast as the sea and as silent as death. 
They did not know how far this great forest extended, or 
what wild animals or races of men it contained. This life 
in the edge of a great, silent, and unexplored forest, and 
on the edge of the sea, affected the customs and habits of 
the people. 

191. Effect of Isolation on the South. — The effect of this 
solitude on the lives of the southern people was emphasized 
by the almost total lack of cities and towns, and by the nature 
of plantation life. Nearly all the people lived on plantations 
which were usually far apart. This caused the people to 
visit each other less frequently than they would have done 
had they lived in cities or close together on small farms. 
The poor means of transportation and communication in 
colonial times tended to make the life of the settlers still 
more lonely. 

192. Effect of Modern Modes of Travel and Communica- 
tion. — The great improvement in modes of travel and 
communication since then has had a profound effect on 
social conditions. At the present time, a person while 
eating breakfast can read in his morning paper about all 
the important things that have taken place in the civilized 
parts of the world up to midnight of the day before. Often 
a new style of dress, or a new invention of some kind, will 
be used in many parts of the world within a few months 
after it is first made. It was quite different in the colonies. 
There were no railroads or telegraphs or telephones in 
the world at that time. The fastest way to travel was by 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 153 

the use of the horse on land and the sailing vessel on 
water. All mail and news had to be carried by the same 
means, and it should be remembered that there were few 
roads then, and that most of these were usually in a very 
bad condition. If Boston had burned, it would have been 
five or six days before the news would have reached New 
York, and many more days before the people in Virginia 
would have heard of it. This slow means of travel and 
communication made life in the colonies, especially in the 
southern colonies, much more isolated and lonely than it 
would have been had railroads and telegraphs existed. It 
also affected the customs and habits of the people by pre- 
venting them from becoming acquainted readily with the 
customs and habits of others. All these conditions had a 
great deal to do with making social life in the colonies so 
different from that of to-day. 

The Southern Colonies 

193. Population and Classes of Society. — At the time 
of the Revolution the number of people living in the five 
southern colonies about equaled the total population of all 
the other colonies. Virginia, with its population of about 
six hundred and seventy thousand, contained at least a 
third more than any one of the other thirteen colonies, and 
more than all the other southern colonies combined. 

194. Classes in Southern Society. — Taken as a whole, the 
people of the southern colonies consisted of four classes, 
namely, the negro slaves, the white servants and poor whites, 
the middle class, and the upper class. It is not exactly cor- 
rect, however, to apply this statement to all the southern 
colonies, because in some of them there were but three 
classes. There was no distinct line separating the middle 



*54 



The Thirteen Colonies 



class from the upper class. The former class, which con- 
sisted of those who owned the smaller farms and planta- 
tions, shaded gradually into the upper class, which consisted 
of those who owned the larger plantations. In South 
Carolina there were but three classes, — the two lower and 
the upper class, — there being but very few small farmers 
except on the frontier. In North Carolina and Georgia 



! «f -. P E N N S Y L V A N I A \-\— O'PhilY.le'jftlta 







Wilmington V, 

Cape Fear 

REGION OF 
LARGE PLANTATIONS 
gparieston AND SLAVE POPULATION 
Just before the Revolution 

76" b.i co.,M.y 



also there were but three classes, — the two lower classes 
and the middle class, — there being very few large planta- 
tions in the two colonies ; although in Georgia, just be- 
fore the Revolution, the number of large plantations began 
to increase rapidly. There were but three classes of 
society in the strip of country which extended from the 
mountains to the plains on the coast, and from Maryland 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 155 

south through all the colonies. There were very few 
slaves in this country, and no upper class. Most of the 
population consisted of those who owned small farms. 

195. Locality of the Large Plantations. — Up to the time 
of the Revolution, therefore, nearly all the large plantations 
of the South were found in Maryland, Virginia, and South 
Carolina, and upon these large plantations was found the 
larger part of the slave population. These large planta- 
tions did not extend back more than one hundred and fifty 
miles from the coast, and most of them were within one 
hundred miles. 

196. The Slave ; Danger from Negro Insurrection. — Far 
below all other classes was the negro slave. He was 
under the absolute control of his master, and could be 
bought and sold like any other kind of property. Only 
a few of the slaves could read or write. They were pur- 
posely kept in dense ignorance in order that the danger 
of insurrection might be lessened. White people in the 
southern colonies, and in some of the northern colonies 
also, lived in constant fear of a negro uprising. It was but 
natural that the negroes should be expected to unite se- 
cretly, and at a given signal begin the destruction of the 
whites. In Virginia the negroes outnumbered the whites, 
and in South Carolina there were at least two negroes to 
every white man. Many of the negroes had been brought 
direct from Africa, where they had been captured by the 
slave traders. They were savage in nature and instinct. 
The wonder is that with so many negroes of this character 
among the black population there were not some serious 
uprisings among slaves in some parts of the South, result- 
ing in the wholesale slaughter of the whites. Several 
negro plots were discovered in Virginia just in time to pre- 
vent outbreaks. In South Carolina, in 1740, an insurrection 



156 The Thirteen Colonies 

did break out. It was soon put down, but while it lasted 
the negroes killed men, women, and children. The con- 
stant dread of such uprisings is seen plainly in many of 
the laws passed in the southern colonies. 

197. Laws relating to Slaves. — The laws relating to 
the negro slave were often severe, and especially was this 
true of many of those in South Carolina and Georgia. 
The main object of the severe laws was to regulate the 
conduct of the negro so as to prevent an uprising. They 
were not allowed to leave the plantation to which they 
belonged, without a permit. If a slave ran away, he 
might be killed by "any one on sight, or, if captured, he 
could be punished severely at public expense. A white 
man could not be imprisoned for killing a negro, but he 
might be fined. Negroes were not permitted to carry any 
firearms, nor could a negro testify against a white man, 
although he could testify against a negro. In South Caro- 
lina white men were required to go to church armed, so as 
to be ready for a negro uprising. Most of these laws, and 
others calling for severe punishments for certain offenses, 
were the direct outgrowth of the well-grounded fear of the 
whites £>l slave insurrections. 

198. Treatment of Slaves on the Small Plantations. — 
The severe laws relating to slavery would seem to indi- 
cate that the negroes were badly treated. As a rule, this 
was not the case. The purpose of these laws was to pre- 
vent a negro outbreak. In actual practice the negroes 
were not often treated cruelly. In Maryland, Virginia, and 
North Carolina, and on all the small farms and plantations 
in all the colonies, both North and South, the negroes were 
usually treated kindly. They had plenty to eat, were com- 
fortably clothed, and were not required to work too hard. 
The master usually took a personal interest in the welfare 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 157 

of his slaves. Many of the negro families had little garden 
plots on which to raise produce for their own tables. The 
negroes were encouraged by their masters to become 
Christians, and on the large plantations in Virginia and 
Maryland they often came together on Sundays for reli- 
gious instruction. In the evenings and on Sundays they 
often met socially, and sang darky melodies, and played 
and danced. No doubt it is true that a majority of the 
negroes in the South lived a better and perhaps a happier 
life than did their half-savage relatives in Africa. Of 
course all the negroes were not so well treated. There 
were some inhuman masters who used the whip, and who 
sold husband away from wife, and parent from child. It 
would have been a most remarkable thing if there were 
not some masters of this kind. To-day there are many of 
the same kind of people living in all parts of the world. 
The man who beats or abuses his wife or child, or treats a 
horse or any other animal cruelly, would treat a slave in the 
same way. 

199. Treatment by Overseers. — In addition to those 
slaves who were ill treated by the few cruel masters, there 
were many on the large plantations in South Carolina and 
Georgia who had a very hard time. Most of the large 
planters in South Carolina lived in Charleston, and left 
the control of their plantations and the negroes to over- 
seers. These overseers were often cruel, and did not take 
the interest in the negroes that the master would have 
taken had he lived on his plantation. The overseer was 
anxious to produce as much rice or indigo as possible for 
his employer, and in order to do this worked the slaves 
too hard, and otherwise abused them. Work on the low, 
swampy fields, where most of the rice and indigo was raised, 
was very unhealthful. Negroes working in these rice and 



'58 



The Thirteen Colonies 



indigo fields did not live to become very old. This state- 
ment regarding the treatment of negroes in Georgia and 
South Carolina applies, however, only to the large rice 
and indigo plantations, which usually were in the hands 
of overseers. The negroes employed in these colonies as 




Slave Quarters on a Carolina Rice Plantation 






house servants, and on the smaller plantations, were well 
treated usually, like those in the other colonies. At the 
time of the Revolution the Virginia legislature came very 
nearly passing a law which would gradually have made the 
slaves free, but after the Revolution this sentiment died 
out rapidly. 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 159 

200. Attitude of the South toward Manual Labor. — Negro 
slavery seriously affected conditions in the southern colo- 
nies. Among other things it caused the southern people 
to look on manual labor as degrading, and fit only for 
slaves. This attitude toward labor brought about impor- 
tant results. It caused those immigrants from Europe 
who expected to work for wages for a while, and afterward 
to buy small farms, or engage in some other business for 
themselves, to avoid the South and to settle in the North. 
Thus thousands of excellent citizens were kept out of the 
South who would otherwise have settled there. 

201. Results of the Lack of Skilled Labor. — As slave 
labor was well suited only to farming and housework, the 
lack of skilled white labor prevented the development of 
manufacturing and of the great natural resources of the 
South. All this tended to make the South settle clown 
still more firmly to plantation life and to the production 
of a few great staples. Southern life was being molded 
more and more closely around the institution of slavery. 

202. Relation between Slaves and their Owners' Families. 
— Many things made the southern people accept slavery as 

a matter of course; but none, perhaps, had more influence 
in this respect than the fact that the masters' children, 
from infancy, were nursed and cared for by the negro 
house servants. The negroes often became as fond of the 
children of their masters as they were of their own. All 
these things tended to cause the negro and his master to 
look upon slavery as the natural condition of society. 

203. Indented White Servants, like the negro slaves, were 
found in all the thirteen colonies. An indented servant was 
a person sold to some one for a certain number of years. 
During the term of the indenture, or contract, he belonged 
to his master, and could not leave him without his consent ; 



160 The Thirteen Colonies 

but after he had served the time specified in the indenture, 
he became free. These indented servants and the poor 
whites comprised the second class of society in the colo- 
nies, which ranked far above that represented by the 
negro slave. 

204. Number and Character of Indented Servants. — 
Fiske estimates that during the seventeenth and eighteenth 
centuries about fifty thousand of these indented servants 
were sent from the British Isles to America, but this esti- 
mate probably is a little large. In character and ability they 
ranged all the way from the English, Scotch, and Irish pris- 
oners of war, who had been captured while fighting for a 
principle, to the common thief and felon. Many boys and 
girls were stolen from the streets of London and sent over 
to the colonies as indented servants. Many poor, but honest, 
hard-working men and women became indented servants in 
order to pay their passage to America. A majority of the 
indented servants, however, belonged to the most worthless 
and degraded class found in the large cities of England. 
When they became free, they formed the most undesirable 
class in the colonies, and comprised to a large extent the 
" poor whites " and the criminal class. When those of 
better character became free, they accumulated property 
and were industrious, respectable citizens. Some became 
large landowners, and a few were elected to the legislatures. 

205. Laws relating to Indented White Servants. — Lodge, 
in his admirable discussion of the indented servant, says : 
"As early as the year 1623 laws were framed to compel 
obedience to masters, and for the next three years there 
was much severe legislation to regulate the servants. 
They were not allowed to marry without leave of their 
masters ; if they ran away, additional service was their 
punishment ; and for their second offense, branding on 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 1 6 1 

the cheek, while those who harbored them were subjected 
to heavy penalties. If they came without indentures, they 
were to serve four years, and years of service were added for 
an assault on their master, for engaging in trade, or refus- 
ing to work, as well as for running away. These provisions 
of the law enabled grasping masters greatly to protract the 
period of servitude, and rendered the condition of the 
servants miserable in'the extreme. The only protection 
afforded them was the right of public burial, and if their 
death was under suspicious circumstances, the neighbors 
were to view the body. They were coarsely clothed, and 
fed upon meal and water sweetened with molasses, and 
were frequently punished with great barbarity. They 
were, as a class, of very poor character, for the most part 
transported convicts and the scum of the London streets." 
206. The Middle and Upper Classes. — The middle class 
in the southern colonies, as already stated, was composed 
of the traders, merchants, and small landholders. The 
upper class was composed of the large landholders. 
The traders and merchants were held in contempt by 
the men who owned the land. Especially was this true 
where such business was considered below the dignity 
of a gentleman. There was no material difference be- 
tween the large and the small landowners. Both came 
from the best old English stock. They intermarried, and 
the small farmer often increased his holdings until he 
became one of the large landholders. The owners of 
large plantations were much like the country gentlemen in 
England, except that their isolation and the ownership 
of slaves made them more independent and aristocratic. 
They lacked some of the outward polish of their cousins in 
England, perhaps, but they were true gentlemen, independ- 
ent, and would permit no interference from any source. 

M 



162 



The Thirteen Colonies 



They ruled the colony in which they lived, and were given 
cordial support by all the other classes. They were brave 
and emphatic in their defense of English liberty. 







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207. The Upper Classes and the Revolution. — When the 
large landholders thought that the mother country was 
trying to deprive them of their liberties, they cast their 
lot almost to a man on the side of the colonies, and were 
loyal and active in support of the Revolution. During 
this period Virginia alone gave to the nation Washington, 
Jefferson, Madison, Marshall, Henry, and many other able 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 163 

men. These men were all leaders in the struggle that 
gave birth to the nation. Nothing could be a better or 
stronger proof of the vigor and ability of the upper class 
in Virginia than the fact that in one generation it produced 
three Presidents of the United States, the commander in 
chief of the American army in the Revolution, and the 
greatest English jurist that ever lived. Well may Virginia 
and her neighbors be especially proud of the record which 
their sons made during this period. 

208. Management of a Plantation. — The conditions on 
the large plantations tended to develop men of strong 
character and ability. Men with small capacity for doing 
things could not have managed successfully the affairs of 
a large plantation. There were more than five hundred 
persons on some of these plantations, and their manage- 
ment required considerable ability. 

209. Resources of a Large Plantation. — General John 
Mason, in describing his father's plantation, gives a good 
idea of the duties of a large planter. George Mason, 
who owned this plantation, had about five hundred slaves. 
He was a leading Virginian, and a member of the con- 
vention that framed the present Constitution of the United 
States. The son, in his description, says : " It was very 
much the practice of gentlemen of landed and slave estates 
in the interior of Virginia so to organize them as to have 
considerable resources within themselves; to employ and 
pay but few tradesmen, and to buv little or none of the 
coarse stuffs and materials used by them, and this practice 
became stronger and more general during the long period 
of the Revolutionary War which in a great measure cut off 
the means of supply from elsewhere. Thus my father had 
among his slaves carpenters, coopers, sawyers, blacksmiths, 
tanners, curriers, shoemakers, spinners, weavers, and knit- 



164 



The Thirteen Colonies 



ters, and even a distiller. His woods furnished timber and 
plank for the carpenters and coopers, and charcoal for the 
blacksmith ; his cattle killed for his own consumption and 
for sale supplied skins for the tanners, curriers, and shoe- 
makers ; and his sheep gave wool, and his fields produced 
cotton and flax for the weavers and spinners, and his 
orchards fruits for the distiller. His carpenters and sur- 
veyors built and kept in repair all the dwelling houses, 




The Kitchen of a Plantation Mansion 

barns, stables, plows, harrows, gates, etc., on the plantation, 
and the outhouses at the house. His coopers made the 
hogsheads the tobacco was prized in, and the tight casks to 
hold the cider and other liquors. The tanners and curriers, 
with the proper vats, etc., tanned and dressed skins as well 
for upper and for lower leather to the full amount of the 
consumption of the estate, and the shoemakers made them 
into shoes for the negroes. A professional shoemaker was 
hired for three or four months in the year to come and 
make up the shoes for the white part of the family. The 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 165 

blacksmiths did all the iron work required by the estab- 
lishment, as making and repairing plows, harrows, chains, 
bolts, etc. The spinners, weavers, and knitters made all 
the coarse cloths and stockings used by the negroes, and 
some of finer texture worn by the white family, nearly all 
worn by the children of it. The distiller made every fall 
a good deal of apple, peach, and persimmon brandy. The 
art of distilling from grain was not then among us, and 
but few public distilleries. All these operations were car- 
ried on at the home house, and their results distributed as 
occasion required to the different plantations. Moreover, 
all the beeves and hogs for consumption or sale were 
driven up and slaughtered there at the proper seasons, and 
whatever was to be preserved was salted and packed away 
for after distribution. 

" My father kept no steward or clerk about him. He 
kept his own books and superintended, with the assistance 
of a trusty slave or two, and occasionally of some of his 
sons, all the operations at or about the home house above 
described, except that during the Revolutionary War and 
when it was necessary to do a great deal in that way to 
clothe all his slaves, he had in his service a white man, a 
weaver of the finer stuffs, to weave himself and superin- 
tend the black weavers, and a white woman to superintend 
the negro spinning women." 

210. Fashion among the Upper Classes. — In dress the 
upper classes followed the fashions of London. Fiske, in 
a discussion of this subject, states: "London fashions 
were strictly followed. In the time of Bacon's Rebellion 
your host would have appeared, perhaps, in a coat and 
breeches of olive plush or dark red broadcloth, with em- 
broidered waistcoat, shirt and shoe buckles, lace ruffles 
about neck and wrists, and his head encumbered with 



i66 



The Thirteen Colonies 



a flowing wig ; while the lady of the house might have 
worn a crimson bodice trimmed with point lace, a black 
tabby (a rich oriental silk) petticoat and silk hose, with 
shoes of fine leather gallooned ; her lace headdress would 
be secured with a gold bodkin, and she would be apt 
to wear ear-rings, a pearl necklace, and finger-rings with 
rubies or diamonds, and to carry a fan." 

211. Social Life and Amusements. — The plantations be- 
ing so large and far apart, there was less social life in the 




Wealthy Southerners — their Costumes and Manners 

South than in some of the northern colonies. This, of course, 
was not true of Charleston. In no other city in the colonies 
was there so much gay social life as in this city. The win- 
ter season was crowded with balls and parties. But while 
there was of necessity much less of this kind of social life on 
the farms and large plantations, no people anywhere ever 
possessed more genuine hospitality and love for social life 
and outdoor sports than did the landholders of the South. 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 167 

212. Outdoor Sports. — The Southerners were especially 
fond of outdoor sports. Horse racing and hunting were 
their two principal amusements. By 1750 Virginia and 
Maryland contained some of the finest horses in the world. 
The races took place twice a year, — in the spring and in 
the fall. The southern people were also very fond of 
hunting, especially of fox-hunting. They were never so 
happy as when following the hounds after the fox. This 
was Washington's chief pleasure, and he continued to 
follow the fox as long as he was able to ride horseback. 
Other outdoor amusements were the field sports, which 
were much like similar sports in England. They were 
usually under the direction of the planters. The Virginia 
Gazette of October, 1737, contains this notice, which gives 
a good idea of one of these field-day entertainments : — 

213. A Field-day Entertainment. — " We have advice 
from Hanover County, that on St. Andrew's Day there 
are to be Horse Races and several other Diversions, and 
the entertainment of the Gentlemen and Ladies, at the 
Old Field, near Captain John Bickerton's, in that county 
(if permitted by the Hon. Wm. Byrd, Esquire, Proprietor 
of said land), the substance of which is as follows, viz. : 
' It is proposed that 20 Horses or Mares do run round a 
three miles' course for a prize of five pounds. 

'"That a Hat of the value of 20s. be cudgelled for, and 
that after the first challenge made the Drums are to beat 
every Quarter of an hour for three challenges round the 
Ring, and none to play with their Left Hand. 

" ' That a violin be played for by 20 Fiddlers ; no person 
to have the liberty of playing unless he bring a fiddle 
with him. After the prize is won they are all to play to- 
gether, and each a different tune, and to be treated by the 
company. 



1 68 The Thirteen Colonies 

"'That 12 Boys of 12 years of age do run 112 yards 
for a Hat of the cost of 12 shillings. 

" ' That a Flag be flying on said day 30 feet high. 

"'That a handsome entertainment be provided for the 
subscribers and their wives ; and such of them as are not 
so happy as to have wives may treat any other lady. 

"'That Drums, Trumpets, Hautboys, &c, be provided 
to play at said entertainment. 

"'That after dinner, the Royal Health, His Honor the 
Governor's &c, are to be drunk. 

" ' That a Quire of ballads be sung for a number of 
Songsters, all of them to have liquor sufficient to clear 
their Wind Pipes. 

" ' That a pair of Silver Buckles be wrestled for by a 
number of brisk young men. 

" ' That a pair of handsome Shoes be danced for. 

" ' That a pair of handsome silk Stockings of one Pistole 
value be given to the handsomest young country maid 
that appears in the Field. With many other Whimsical 
and Comical Diversions too numerous to mention. 

" ' And as this mirth is designed to be purely innocent 
and void of offense, all persons resorting there are desired 
to behave themselves with decency and sobriety, the sub- 
scribers being resolved to discountenance all immorality 
with the utmost rigor.' " 

New England 

214. Distribution of Population ; Classes of Society. — 

At the time of the Revolution about seven hundred thou- 
sand people were living in New England, which was 
about equal to the number living in Virginia. As in the 
South, there were four classes of society, — the slave, the 
indented servant, the middle class, and the upper class. 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 169 

The number of slaves and indented servants was very 
small as compared with the number of those in the South. 
The total slave population of New England did not exceed 
twenty thousand, and probably was not more than fifteen 
thousand. The slaves were employed almost exclusively 
as house servants, their labor not being very valuable on 
the small farms, in manufacturing, or in the other indus- 
tries. 

215. Laws relating to Slaves and Indented Servants. — 
The laws regarding slaves and indented servants were 
much milder than those in the South. The treatment 
of the slaves, as a rule, was very kind, which was due 
largely to the fact that their employment as house servants 
kept them in close personal relation with their masters. 
The indented servants also were treated kindly, and after 
they became free they usually succeeded in going into 
business for themselves. 

216. Grounds of Class Distinctions. — While there was 
no distinct line dividing the middle from the upper class, 
there was a great difference between the lower of the 
middle class and the higher of the upper class. Thus 
there was as distinct and as strong an aristocracy in 
New England as in the southern colonies, but it rested 
on a somewhat different basis. Aristocracy in the South 
rested somewhat upon birth, but largely upon large land- 
holdings ; while that of New England rested on ability, 
education, birth, and wealth, though not to any great 
extent on wealth. The upper or aristocratic class was 
composed not of large landholders, but of those whose 
families for generations had been noted for their wealth, 
education, or services in the government ; of those who 
were well educated and learned ; of those who had per- 
formed valuable public service ; and of those who had 



170 



The Thirteen Colonies 



been very successful as merchants or in commerce. 
The middle class was composed of the mass of the popu- 
lation, which consisted of the farmers, merchants, and 
those engaged in manufacturing and in the other lines 
of industry. There were fewer foreigners in New Eng- 
land than in the other colonies, nearly all the members 
of both the upper and middle classes being of pure Eng- 
lish stock, and like the southern landholders they repre- 
sented the highest English citizenship. 

217. Education. — The masses of the people in New 
England were much better educated than those in the 




A Salem Schoolhouse with Whipping-post in the near Street 
From a drawing made about 1770 

other colonies. As will be seen later when the subject of 
"Education in the Colonies" is reached, this was due in 
part to the fact that a large number of people lived in 
towns and cities. 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 171 

218. Social Distinctions ; Effect on New England Life. — 

The social distinctions referred to in the last paragraph 
had an important effect in many ways on New England 
life. Nearly all the offices were filled by men of the 
upper class. If through a mistake or oversight the son 
of a carpenter or bricklayer or any one engaged in a 
similar occupation should be elected to office, he could 
be removed simply because his father did not hold a 
higher social position in the community. Lodge cites 
a case in which some people as late as 1759 asked to 
have a peace officer removed because his father was a 
bricklayer, and the only point argued was whether the 
charge was true, it being accepted as a matter of course 
that he would be removed if he really were the son of a 
bricklayer. These social distinctions were also carefully 
observed in everyday life. In church the people were 
seated according to their social position. The best seats 
and most prominent positions were given to public offi- 
cials and to other members of the upper class. The other 
seats were assigned according to the social rank of the 
various members. People were compelled to occupy the 
seats assigned them, and any one who refused to do so 
was punished. These same distinctions were made in the 
colleges. A student on entering college was assigned a 
position according to the social standing of his father. 
A list containing the names of the students, with the posi- 
tion assigned to each, was hung up in the college hall, and 
all were obliged to comply with it. This custom was not 
abolished in Harvard and Yale until about the time of the 
Revolution. It is rather surprising that in a new coun- 
try, where labor was considered honorable, so many of the 
everyday affairs of life should have been affected to such 
an extent, and for so long a time, by social position. 



\J2 The Thirteen Colonies 

219. Dress and Amusements as Affected by Puritanism. 

— The nature of the Puritan religion had a great deal to 
do with the dress and amusements of the New England 
people. The ministers taught simplicity in dress, and 
they were opposed to dances and parties. The laws of 
Massachusetts prohibited theaters, and they were not in- 
troduced with success until after the Revolution. The 
religion of the Puritans made New England life earnest, 
simple, and solemn. It taught that amusements and undue 
hilarity and pleasure were the works of Satan. The Puri- 
tans carried out their ideas in their daily life, and they com- 
pelled others to do the same. Before the Massachusetts 
charter was annulled in 1684, all men were required to 
attend church and to refrain from certain amusements. 
The wealthy class wore clothes made of fine material, 
often of silks and broadcloth, but the styles were simple 
and plain. The outdoor amusements consisted of hunt- 
ing, fishing, sleighing, and of various athletic spcfrts. 

220. Changes in Social Life due to British Influence. — 
After New England was placed under royal governors, 
and the early Puritanism had declined somewhat in strict- 
ness, New England life gradually became more bright 
and cheerful. The following by Lodge, based largely on 
the best sources, is, perhaps, the best description of this 
change ever written : " Entertainment of a quieter and 
more everyday kind was found by ladies and gentlemen 
in walking in the mall every fine afternoon, and then 
going to each other's houses to pass the evening, unless 
they went to lectures, which was possible on six nights 
out of seven. These were narrow limits, for not only 
were plays and music houses discountenanced, but danc- 
ing-parties and balls were by no means encouraged. ' Of 
late,' says one writer, in the year 1740, 'they have set up 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 173 

an assembly, to which some of the ladies resort. But they 
are looked upon to be none the nicest in regard to reputa- 
tion, and it is thought it will soon be suppressed, for it is 
much taken notice of and exploded by the religious and 
sober part of the people.' Yet they did not seem dis- 
pirited or moping for lack of amusement, and the same 
writer says elsewhere : ' The ladies here visit, drink tea, 
and indulge in every little piece of gentility to the height 
of the mode, and neglect the affairs of their family with 
as good grace as the finest ladies in London.' The old 
system, in fact, was giving way before the presence of an 
energetic and pleasure-loving social element, and balls 
and parties soon became an unquestioned part of social 
life. 

221. Sabbath-keeping. — "After the troops were quar- 
tered in Boston, an attempt was even made to infringe 
upon the Sabbath. ' We have had an innovation here 
never known before,' writes a worthy citizen, in the' year 
1773. 'A drum or rout given by the admiral last Satur- 
day evening, which did not break up till two or three 
o'clock on Sunday morning, their chief amusement being 
playing cards.' This innovation was a step too far, and 
disappeared with the English soldiers ; but, nevertheless, 
at the time of the Revolution, the old abhorrence of amuse- 
ments was nearly gone, and social life in Boston was by 
no means somber and depressing; so that those who found 
time in the midst of an active life for relaxation had no 
lack of opportunities." This description applies to Boston, 
which led in the revolt against the solemn simplicity of 
Puritanism. In the smaller towns, and especially in the 
country, the Puritan ideals of dress and amusements were 
held much longer, and in some parts of New England 
have a strong influence on social life at the present time. 



174 The Thirteen Colonies 

The Middle Colonies 

222. Population. — At the beginning of the Revolution 
the total population of the middle colonies was about six 
hundred and seventy thousand, which was about equal to 
the population of New England or of Virginia. Of this 
number New York contained about one hundred and 
seventy thousand, New Jersey about one hundred thou- 
sand, Pennsylvania about three hundred and sixty thou- 
sand, and Delaware about forty thousand. 

223. Classes of Society. — With the exception of the 
large Dutch landholders along the Hudson and Mohawk 
rivers in New York, the people of the middle colonies were 
divided into but three well-defined classes, — the slaves, the 
indented servants, and the class which corresponds to the 
middle class in Virginia and in New England, consisting 
of farmers, merchants, traders, and those engaged in other 
lines of industry. 

224. Slaves; their Treatment. — There were about sixty- 
five thousand slaves in these colonies, forty thousand of 
whom were in Pennsylvania and Delaware, about fifteen 
thousand in New York, and about ten thousand in New 
Jersey. Nearly all the slaves were employed as house ser- 
vants, just as in New England. As a rule, they were 
treated kindly, this being due largely to the nature of their 
work, which brought them into close contact with their 
masters. Although the number of slaves was small, there 
was, at times, some fear of a slave uprising in the large 
cities. All such attempts met with severe punishment. 
All together some fifteen negroes were burned to death 
at the stake in New York, and several were put to death 
in the same way in New Jersey. In some of these cases 
the negroes had no intention of killing the whites or burn- 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 175 

ing the cities, but the whites thought they were planning 
to, and so inflicted this terrible punishment. 

225. Indented Servants. — The indented servants were 
not treated so well as in New England. This may have 
been due, at least to some extent, to the fact that the num- 
ber of indented servants was larger in the middle colonies 
than in New England. With the exception of Virginia, 
Pennsylvania contained more indented servants than any 
other colony. Many of them had voluntarily entered into 
the contracts of indenture in order to pay their fares from 
Europe. After they became free, many of them "made 
fairly good citizens ; but the remainder comprised a large 
part of the pauper and criminal classes. The third class, 
which consisted of the great mass of the people, was 
vigorous, earnest, and progressive. 

226. Nationality of the Inhabitants. — There were fewer 
English in the middle colonies in proportion to the popu- 
lation than in the other colonies. For about fifty years 
New York had been a Dutch province, and naturally there 
was a large number of Dutch there. The Germans, Scotch, 
Irish, and French Huguenots comprised a large part of 
the population in Pennsylvania and Delaware, and in the 
latter colony there were a good many Swedes. East New 
Jersey was almost purely English, being settled largely by 
people from New England. West New Jersey contained 
many Germans. The only distinct upper class or aristoc- 
racy in the middle colonies was made up of the large 
Dutch landholders along the Hudson and Mohawk rivers. 
At the present time many of the leading men and women 
of New York trace with pride their descent from these 
large landholders. 

227. The Manors of the Hudson and the Mohawk. — The 
first owners of these great estates, called manors, received 



\y6 



The Thirteen Colonies 



their vast grants of land when the Dutch first settled 
New York. These grants were given to them as an 
inducement to settle in the province. The owner of one 
of these estates had even more authority and power than 
the large landholders of the South. He rented most 
of his land to farmers, who paid him so much rent each 
year. Each of the larger estates was entitled to one 
representative in the legislature of the colony. The owner 
could hold court and inflict punishment for the violation 
of laws. In several cases the death penalty was inflicted. 
In fact, the owners of these large estates or manors on the 
Hudson and the Mohawk had some of the rights and 
powers possessed by the lords and barons of Europe. It 
was the only case where the old feudal system was, even in 
part, reproduced in the colonies. Among the most noted 
families were the Van Rensselaers, the 
Cortlandts, the Livingstons, the Schuy- 
lers, the Philipses, and the Cuylers. 

228. The Habits, Dress, and Amuse- 
ments of the people in the middle colo- 
nies varied somewhat in the different 
colonies. In New Jersey the early 
Puritan ideas of quiet and solemn sim- 
plicity prevailed. The life of the small 
Dutch farmers of New York also was 
simple, earnest, and industrious. Their 
clothing was* homemade, and the cloth 
of which it was made was home spun 
and woven. They did not readily adopt 
the fashions which were brought from 
Europe, and which were followed in 
the larger towns. The amusements were few and simple, 
consisting of corn huskings and spinning bees, and of 




Spinning Wheel 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 



177 



simple outdoor sports such as skating, hunting, and fish- 
ing. The lords of the manors were opposed to theaters 
and to the amusements introduced by the English govern- 
ors and other English officials. In Delaware and Penn- 
sylvania, outside of Philadelphia, the dress and amusements 
of the people were simple, although there were frequent 
rough quarrels and fights when the country people gath- 
ered in the towns on the occasion of fairs or other attrac- 
tions. As a rule, the clothes of the country people were 
homemade from homespun cloth. 

229. Social Life in the Country and Small Towns. — 
There was more social life than among the farmers of New 




Foot Stove 

England. "The rare events of country life were seized 
upon in the recurring seasons and enjoyed to the full. 
Seed-time and harvest, husking and cider-pressing, house- 
raising and vendues, shooting-matches, sleighing, and 
Christmas sports were always the occasions of social 



178 The Thirteen Colonies 

gatherings. There was a good deal of drinking, and still 
more dancing, and in every hamlet the fiddler was an im- 
portant personage." Until about the time of the Revolution 
the floors in farmers' houses were covered with sand, and the 
same was true of nearly all the Dutch houses in New York. 
230. Social Life in New York and Philadelphia. — At the 
time of the Revolution, Philadelphia was the largest city 
in North America, and New York was third in size, 
Boston being second. In the matter of dress the wealth- 
ier class in Philadelphia and New York followed closely 
the fashions of London. Both men and women wore 
clothes made of silk and velvet, and wore a great deal 
of rich, bright-colored material. The men wore large, 
powdered wigs, and carried swords. A young man of 
fashion wore rich clothing of various bright colors. " A 
lady, struck with the appearance of some gay fellow at a 
ball, addressed him in the following lines : — 

" ' Mine a tall youth shall at a ball be seen, 

Whose legs are like the spring, all clothed in green ; 
A yellow ribbon ties his long cravat, 
And a large knot of yellow cocks his hat. 1 

The women dressed in the height of fashion, especially in 
Philadelphia. They devoted hours to dressing for balls 
and parties. Flowered stuffs of every variety — brocades, 
satins, velvets, and silks — were much in vogue, and hours 
were spent in the construction of tall headdresses and 
mounds of hair. They wore masks in cold weather, and 
carried fans of ivory with pictured sides. Even the 
Quakers gave way ; and while the stricter members wore 
plain but rich material, a portion of the sect, known as 
Wet Quakers, yielded to the fascinations of powder, silver 
buckles, and bright colors." This description applies more 
especially to Philadelphia ; but the same styles of dress 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 179 

were followed to a large extent in New York. The princi- 
pal social amusements were balls, parties, and theaters. In 
addition to these amusements young men spent much of 
their time at their clubs. With the exception of Charles- 
ton, gay social life was enjoyed to a fuller extent in New 
York and Philadelphia than in any of the other cities in 
the colonies. 




Old State House, Philadelphia 



GOVERNMENT 



Local Government 

231. Divisions of Government. — Every pupil who reads 
or studies this book in school lives, very likely, with his 
parents, and is therefore one member of a family. He is 
also a member of the school that he attends. He is a 
citizen or member of the county in which he lives, and 
whether he lives in a town, a city, or in the country he is 



180 The Thirteen Colonies 

a member of one of the parts or subdivisions of the county. 
He is also a member of the state in which he lives, and as 
the states make up the nation, he is a member of the 
nation, or, as is usually said, a citizen of the United States. 
Every family, school, subdivision of the country, county, 
state, and the nation also, have certain rules or laws which 
are called government. Each pupil, therefore, lives under 
several different forms of government. He lives under the 
government of his parents or guardian ; under the govern- 
ment of his teacher and the school trustees or board of 
education ; under the government of the city or other divi- 
sion of the county in which he lives ; under the government 
of the county in which he lives ; under the government of 
the state in which he lives; and under the government 
of the United States. Every one lives under these differ- 
ent forms of government and must obey the rules of each. 
Men and women, of course, are not under the rules of the 
family and school in the same way that a pupil is, but 
they must obey the general laws relating to the family 
and school. 

232. Harmony of Laws ; Changes and Improvements. — 
With so many laws it would seem that the laws of the fam- 
ily, school, county, state, and nation would conflict or inter- 
fere with one another. They do not, however, and this is 
most remarkable. All these laws work in harmony. This is 
not the result of chance or accident. Our ancestors for 
thousands of years have been working at the different divi- 
sions of government, and making laws for each. A long 
time ago, when our ancestors were savages, the laws were 
rude and simple. Ever since then the laws have gradually 
been changed, increased in number and made better, and 
at the present time they are being changed and made 
better each year. The laws have been changed and are 



Institutional Life in the Colonies i 8 I 

being changed in order that boys and girls and men and 
women may live happier and more useful lives. 

233. Changes in Government. — There have been many 
changes in the different forms of government since the 
colonies were first settled, and it will be interesting and 
valuable to learn something about these changes. It will 
not be possible in this small book to study all the units 
or divisions of government, but some of them will be 
taken up and the more important changes noted briefly. 
The governments of the state and of the United States 
are known as the state and national governments, and 
those of the county and all smaller divisions are known 
as local government. 

234. The County at the Present Time; its Powers and 
Duties. — To-day, in nearly all the states west, and in many 
of those east, of the Appalachian Mountains, the county is 
the most powerful unit or division of local government. 
Its powers and duties are next to those of the state, and 
are carried out by a board of men elected by the people. 
In a large majority of these states the members of the 
county boards are called commissioners ; in a small group 
of states they are called supervisors. The supervisors are 
elected by the people of the townships into which the 
county is divided, and in some cases the cities of a county 
may elect one or more supervisors. The commissioners are 
usually elected by the people of the entire county, without 
any reference to the townships or cities, but each commis- 
sioner often represents a certain part or division of the 
county, and in addition to his general duties looks after 
the special interests of his district. In some cases, as in 
California, the commissioners (called supervisors in Cali- 
fornia) are elected by the people of their districts, and not 
by the people of the entire county. In those states where 



1 82 The Thirteen Colonies 

supervisors are elected the board usually consists of more 
members than in those states where commissioners are 
elected. The powers of the board under either system are 
usually about the same. In nearly all those counties 
west of the Appalachian Mountains the county boards, 
in addition to many other powers and duties, must levy 
taxes and take general charge of the money affairs of 
the county, look after the general welfare of the schools, 
construct bridges and look after the roads, and see that 
the poor receive proper care and attention. In addition 
to the board of commissioners or supervisors, there are 
a number of other county officers, as sheriff, treasurer, as- 
sessor, tax collector, superintendent of schools, auditor, 
recorder, and judge. In some states there are fewer county 
officers than those named, in other states there are more. 
From what has been stated above, it will be seen that in 
most of the states at the present time the county is a very 
important unit of government, and that it has more power 
in local affairs than any other local unit or division of 
government. It would be valuable at this point for the 
pupil to make a careful study of the county in which he 
lives. Before going farther in this book, therefore, the 
teacher and pupils are urged to investigate the duties and 
powers of all the officials of their home county, and also 
the duties and powers of their city, township, and school 
officials. 

235. The County in Colonial Times. — The discussion of 
the county in the last paragraph does not, in one sense, 
belong to government in the colonies ; but it is neces- 
sary to understand the great powers and. duties of the 
county in local government to-day in order to under- 
stand its importance in the colonies. The county did not 
always have the powers that it now has. It has had to 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 183 

fight long and hard for them. So far as the United States 
is concerned, the struggle began in the colonies, and 
has not yet ended. Each of the thirteen colonies was 
divided into counties. In most of New England to-day 
the subdivisions of the county, called townships, are more 
powerful in local government than the county, and in 
South Carolina up to .1868 the subdivisions of the county, 
called parishes and districts, were of much more importance 
in local affairs than the county. As the middle section of 
the colonies is approached from New England on the north 
and east and from South Carolina on the south, it is seen 
that the county became of more and more importance as a 
unit of local government, and when Pennsylvania is reached, 
it was and remains by far the strongest and most powerful 
unit, in local affairs. 

236. The County in New England; the Township. — In 
New England each county consists of townships. Town- 
ships were formed before the early counties were organ- 
ized. This was due to the fact that the Puritans came 
over in congregations and established towns. A town 
in New England included not only the town proper, but 
the adjacent country also. In New England, therefore, 
" town " and " township " meant the same in so far as it 
relates to a unit of local government. These towns had 
by far the most power in local affairs. 

237. The Town Meeting. — Meetings, called town meet- 
ings, were held. These meetings were usually held in the 
largest towns in the township, and all those who were 
entitled to vote were supposed to be present. The town 
meeting was a training school in public affairs. At one of 
these meetings the people, in addition to many other pow- 
ers, could levy taxes and direct for what the money thus 
raised should be expended ; could elect delegates to the 



184 



The Thirteen Colonies 



legislature of the colony ; could elect the officers of the 
township and direct them as to their duties ; and could pro- 
vide for schools. The township, in fact, had control of 
nearly all the more important local affairs. 




Faneuil Hall 



238. Powers of the County ; the County Board. — The 

county, however, possessed some important powers. In 
each county there was a county court composed of men 
elected by the people and appointed by the governor. 
Among its other powers, this court could interpret the laws 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 185 

in certain cases, lay out public highways, review the laws 
passed by the townships, and see that the township officers 
performed their duties. 

239. The County and the Township in New England at 
Present. — In Massachusetts the powers of the county have 
increased constantly up to this time. To-day the county 
board is composed of three members elected by the people. 
This board has lost the judicial power (the right to act 
as a court and interpret laws) which the county court had 
when Massachusetts was a colony ; but it has secured many 
more civil powers than the old county court had. The 
county in Massachusetts to-day has a number of county 
officers, and is of much more importance in local affairs 
than it was during colonial times ; but it is still of less im- 
portance than the township. In the rest of New Eng- 
land the county has still fewer powers. In the struggle 
between the county and the township in New England, the 
latter has been the victor, and is at the present time the 
most important unit of local government. 

240. The County in South Carolina ; the District and 
Parish. — South Carolina was the only one of the southern 
colonies in which the county was not the most important unit 
of local government. Each county was divided, and these 
subdivisions were called parishes, except in the western 
part of the colony, where they were called districts. The 
parish and the district were the most important unit of 
local government in South Carolina. They had much the 
same power as the township in New England, and like the 
townships were the local unit for the election of men to 
the legislature of the colony. The county was of less im- 
portance in local affairs than in New England. At the 
present time, however, it has far more power in local affairs 
than any other local unit, but it was a long time before it 



i 86 The Thirteen Colonies 

secured this power. In 1865 the parish was abolished and 
the district system was extended to all the counties. Three 
years later the district system was abolished and the 
county was given control of all the more important local 
affairs. The county board consists of three commissioners 
elected by the people of the county. Thus in South Caro- 
lina the county, after a contest of nearly two hundred 
years, defeated the parish and the district in the struggle 
for the control of local affairs. The only place in the 
United States to-day where the parish is an important unit 
in local affairs is in Louisiana ; but in this state " parish " is 
simply another name for "county." 

241. The County in Virginia. — In all the other southern 
colonies the county was the most important unit of local 
government. As county government in all these colonies 
was similar, a study of the Virginia county will serve for all 
of them. In Virginia the counties were divided into par- 
ishes, but the officers of the parish had little to do except 
to look after the affairs of the Episcopal church. The 
county had control of all the important local matters. The 
county court consisted usually of eight or more members, 
called justices. These justices were appointed by the gov- 
ernor, but were nominated by the justices themselves. As 
they would usually nominate themselves for reappointment, 
the county court was usually in the control of the large 
planters. ' This plan took the control of the more important 
local affairs out of the hands of the mass of the people ; but 
they seemed satisfied, and as a matter of fact the affairs of 
the county, as a rule, were well managed. The appoint- 
ment of justices by the governor tended to give him undue 
control of local affairs, but the governors interfered very 
little in county matters. While the people did not elect 
their county officers, they took great interest in local ques- 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 187 

tions and gathered at the county courthouse when the 
court was in session, and discussed public affairs. As a 
result of such informal meetings and discussions, the mem- 
bers of the court usually knew about what the people 
desired, and as a rule carried out their wishes. In addi- 
tion to many other powers and duties, the county court 
acted as a judicial body and applied the law in certain 
cases ; it levied the county taxes and had general charge 
of the public money ; it looked after the public highway ; 
and it appointed a number of county officers and directed 
them in the discharge of their duties. The county was the 
local unit for the election of burgesses to the legislature 
of the colony. 

242. The County in Other States. — While there have 
been many changes since colonial days in the form of 
county government in Virginia, Maryland, North Caro- 
lina, and Georgia, the county still remains there the most 
important unit of local government. In all these states, 
at the present time, the people elect the members of 
the county board and most of the other officers, thus 
placing local government directly in the hands of the 
people. The county in Virginia has been considered very 
important because, it is claimed, the states west of the 
Appalachian Mountains followed it closely when organiz- 
ing their counties. That part of the Virginia system which 
gave great power to the county did, no doubt, influence the 
western country somewhat; but the county systems of 
Pennsylvania and New York were followed more closely 
by the western states. In fact, Virginia herself has 
adopted, to a large extent, the main features of the colonial 
county government of Pennsylvania and New York. 

243. The County in the Middle Colonies. — In each of 
the middle colonies, as in all the other colonies except 



i 88 The Thirteen Colonies 

South Carolina and those of New England, the county 
and not the township, parish, or district was the local 
unit that elected delegates to the legislature or law- 
making body of the colony. In all the middle colonies 
the county was the most important unit of local govern- 
ment. The county in New York and in Pennsylvania 
deserves special notice because the main features of the 
system of county government in these two colonies have 
been copied in nearly all the states west of the Appalachian 
Mountains, and in a number of the states east of those 
mountains. 

244. The Supervisor Plan. — As has already been seen, 
the supervisor plan of county government exists in a small 
group of states. The main features of this plan have 
been copied from New York, as first adopted by that colony 
in 1703, and changed later. In New York the members of 
the board were called supervisors, and were elected by the 
people of the townships. Thus the supervisors repre- 
sented the different townships of the county. The num- 
ber of supervisors in a county depends on the number of 
townships in that county, and on the number of supervisors 
each township is entitled to elect. Under this plan, there- 
fore, a county might have only five supervisors or less, or 
it might have twenty-five or more. 

245. The Pennsylvania, or Commissioner, Plan of county 
government differed from that of all the other colonies. The 
county system of this colony has been adopted by a large 
majority of the states. In Pennsylvania the county board 
consisted of three members called commissioners. They 
were elected by all the people of the county — that is, each 
legal voter in the county could vote for all three commis- 
sioners. The people also elected a number of other impor- 
tant county officers. Great power in local affairs was given 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 189 

to the commissioners, and considerable power to some of 
the other county officers. It will be seen from this that in 
Pennsylvania each county, so far as its local affairs were 
concerned, was a little republic and possessed very impor- 
tant powers. The county board in Virginia also possessed 
very important powers ; but its members were appointed by 
the governor, while in Pennsylvania they were elected by 
the people, which is a very important difference. 

246. Influence of the Pennsylvania Plan. — Most of those 
states which have adopted the Pennsylvania system of 
county government just explained have changed it some- 
what, and Pennsylvania herself has done the same. In 
some states there are five instead of three commissioners. 
Some states divide the county into three or more districts, 
and the people of each district elect a commissioner. In 
some states, as in Virginia and California, the men thus 
elected are called supervisors instead of commissioners ; but 
in such cases the main features of the plan may be found in 
the county system which existed in Pennsylvania when she 
was a colony. From all this it will be seen that Pennsyl- 
vania has had a profound effect on local government in 
the United States. 

247. The County, Township, and Parish Compared. — 
As has been shown already, the parish, so far as the 
United States is concerned, has been defeated in the con- 
test for the control of local affairs. Nowhere in the United 
States is it the most important unit of local government, 
except in Louisiana, where the name " parish " is merely 
another name for "county." The township remains su- 
preme in New England ; but in all the rest of the United 
States, with the possible exception of Michigan, the county 
is the most important unit or division of local government. 
Up to the present time such has been the result of the con- 



190 The Thirteen Colonies 

test of the parish, township, and county. There is nothing 
that seems to indicate that the county will not retain its 
present strong position. 

248. Growth of the Principle of Township Government. — 
But while the county will, no doubt, remain the largest unit 
of local government, and will retain supreme power over 
those local affairs which affect the welfare of the people of 
the entire county, the principle of township government in 
the smaller local affairs is very strong, and many things 
indicate that it will become stronger and stronger. Fre- 
quently when a county becomes thickly settled, the people 
of a neighborhood desire direct control over those things 
which affect them, but do not affect the people of the rest of 
the county to so great an extent. While the people are will- 
ing to elect county officials and to have these officers attend 
to the general affairs of the county, they like to discuss 
and decide for themselves those things which more directly 
affect their neighborhood. In order that they may do this, 
the counties have been divided into districts of some kind. 
Nearly all the land west of the Appalachian Mountains 
has been divided by the government of the United States 
into townships each six miles square. 

249. Other Divisions of the County. — In most of the 
western states the counties have been divided into school 
districts and into precincts. In nearly all the states the 
people have provided that some one of these divisions of 
the county shall be used as a unit of government in matters 
that affect more particularly the affairs of each neighbor- 
hood. In some states they use for this purpose the division 
of the county called the township, but this may not be the 
government township referred to above ; in others, the 
division called the precinct ; and in still others the division 
called the school district. Especially in the western states 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 191 

is the school district used for this purpose. The people who 
live in the division of the county used as this smaller unit of 
local government meet and discuss those questions which 
they wish to consider, and may decide them by vote. They 
may also meet to elect officers for their school district, or 
township, or county. All these meetings are based on the 
principle of the town meeting of New England. 

250. Colonial Influence on Local Government. — From this 
discussion on local government it becomes plain that while 
Pennsylvania, New York, and to a certain extent Virginia, 
have given to the nation the county, which has become the 
important larger unit of local government, New England 
has given to the nation the principle of the town meeting, 
which is a smaller but a most important unit of govern- 
ment. The town meeting, the school meeting, and the 
precinct meeting serve as excellent schools for training 
men in public affairs, and they should be attended by every 
citizen who has the welfare of his country at heart. 

State and Colonial Government 

251. State, National, and Local Government. — Next to 
the county in the affairs of government is the state. The 
states in matters of government have control of all those 
things that the people have not given to the national 
government, or which are not controlled by the county 
or the smaller units of local government. The people 
of the United States have given to the national govern- 
ment control of all those things which affect the na- 
tion as a whole, and have reserved to the states all other 
powers of government. That part of these reserved powers 
which affects more directly the people of the entire state 
is given to the state government. The other part of these 



192 The Thirteen Colonies 

reserved powers belongs to the county and the smaller units 
of local government. 

252. State Constitutions. — The division of all these 
powers of government — national, state, and local — is 
stated and defined in the national and state constitutions, 
which have been adopted by the people either by direct 
vote or by representatives whom they have elected. The 
state constitutions give to the state government the power 
to outline and define in many ways the powers of local 
government ; but as the state officers are elected by the 
people, they carry out the wishes of the people in these 
matters. Thus it follows that in the United States the 
people are the source of all power, and that they have the 
power to change a law or even the form of government. 

253. Departments of State Government. — National, state, 
and local government consists of three departments, namely, 
the legislative, the executive, and the judicial. The legis- 
lative department makes the laws ; the executive depart- 
ment executes or enforces them; the judicial department 
interprets, or tells what the laws mean, and applies them 
to the affairs of life. 

254. The Legislative Department ; Election of Members ; 
Powers. — The legislative department in all the states con- 
sists of two houses. The upper house is the smaller, and 
in every state is called the senate. The lower house is 
usually called the assembly, or house of representatives. 
The legislative department of the national government also 
consists of two houses. The upper is called the senate, 
and the lower the house of representatives. The legislative 
department in the county consists of the board of commis- 
sioners or supervisors, and the legislative department of 
cities or other smaller units of local government consists of 
similar bodies. The members of the legislative department 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 193 

in all the states and in all the units of local government are 
elected by the people. The state legislatures have impor- 
tant power and have control of many things. " All of the 
general laws under which our local governments and 
schools are organized, those referring to the state and 
local courts and procedure in these courts, those dealing 
with the making and enforcement of contracts, the trans- 
fer of property, marriage and divorce, with the prevention 
of the spread of diseases, with the incorporation of business 
houses — all of these form only a part of the vast number 
under the charge of the legislatures, the whole covering a 
set of subjects of the first importance not only because 
there are so many but because all are of such interest to 
us in our homes and business life." 

255. Executive Department ; Officers. — In all the states 
the highest executive officer is the governor ; in the national 
government he is the President of the United States ; and 
in the larger towns he is called the mayor. In the counties 
the various county officials attend to the executive busi- 
ness. While the governor is at the head of the executive 
department of the state, there are a number of other execu- 
tive officers in the state who assist in enforcing the laws. 
Among the other more important executive officers of each 
state are the lieutenant governor, secretary of state, con- 
troller, treasurer, superintendent of public instruction, and 
attorney general. The governor is always elected by the 
people, and so are the other executive officers, except that 
in a few states some of them are appointed either by the 
governor or by the legislature. The lieutenant governor 
usually presides over the Senate and takes the governor's 
place when the latter is absent from the state, or when he 
resigns or dies, or for any reason is legally removed from 
office. The other executive officers just named perform 



1 94 The Thirteen Colonies 

the duties of their various offices. All local officers also 
must assist in enforcing the laws of the state, and this is a 
great help to the state officers. The governor is by far 
the most important executive officer in the state. He is 
commander in chief of the state soldiers, or militia, and 
when the other state or local officers cannot enforce the 
laws, he may call on the soldiers to assist in their en- 
forcement. 

256. The Judicial Department of each state consists of a 
supreme court and of a number of lower courts. The 
judicial department of the national government also con- 
sists of a Supreme Court and a number of lower courts. 
Next to the supreme courts of the state are the county 
courts, and next to the county courts are the city courts 
and justice's courts. In some states there are circuit or 
district courts between the supreme court and the county 
court. The judges in all these courts are elected usually 
by the people, but in several states some of them are ap- 
pointed by the governor or legislature. The members of 
the supreme court are elected usually by the people of the 
entire state, and a judge in a lower court is elected by the 
people in that division of the state of which he is a judge. 
The city courts and justice's courts try the less important 
cases ; the county courts those which are of more impor- 
tance ; the circuit or district courts those which are of still 
more importance, and from the last-named court cases may 
be appealed to the supreme courts. Many cases may be 
appealed from the lower courts in the state up through all 
the others, and some cases may be appealed from the state 
supreme court to the United States Courts. 

257. State, National, and Local Government Compared. — 
From the above brief discussion of state government it 
becomes plain that in general form, and divisions into de- 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 195 

partments, state government is almost exactly the same as 
national government, and that in those respects it closely 
resembles local government. The main difference in 
national, state, and local government is not in form but 
in the things each controls. As already stated, the national 
government has control of those things which affect in a 
general way the people of all the states ; state government 
has control of those things which affect more directly the 
people of a state ; and local government has control of 
those things which affect still more directly the people of 
a small part, or division of the state. It is essential at 
this point for the pupil to see clearly these relationships. 

258. Value of Study of State Government. — It is also very 
essential for him to v get a fairly good idea of state govern- 
ment, in order that he may see clearly how it has grown 
out of colonial government. For this reason the teacher 
and pupils are urged (if they have not already done so) 
to make a somewhat careful study of the government of 
the state in which they live, before taking up the study 
of colonial government, which is next discussed. The dis- 
cussion which follows applies to that government in the 
colonies which corresponds to state government to-day. 

259. Colonial Government ; Mode of Treatment. — The 
colonial government discussed is that which existed in 
the colonies from about 1700 to the time of the Revolu- 
tion, although in some respects the form of government 
which existed at the time of the Revolution had been 
established in some of the colonies before 1700 and in 
others not until after 1700. The way in which each 
colony secured the form of government which it had be- 
tween 1700 and at the time of the Revolution has already 
been briefly discussed under the head of " Origin, Growth, 
and Political History." The growth of colonial govern- 



196 The Thirteen Colonies 

ment, therefore, will not here be taken up ; the discussion 
will be restricted to that government as it then existed. 

260. Legislative Department in the Colonies. — The co- 
lonial governments, like the state governments of to-day, 
consisted of three departments, — legislative, executive, and 
judicial. The legislative department in all the colonies, like 
those in all the states to-day, consisted of two houses. The 
lower house was usually called house of representatives, 
the assembly, or house of burgesses. The members of the 
lower house, as is the case in all the states to-day, were 
elected by the people. But there was one important differ- 
ence. In all the colonies no one could vote for a member 
of the lower house, or for any other officer of the colonies, 
unless he owned a certain amount of property, whereas 
to-day in the United States no property qualification is 
required of a voter. The amount of property required 
varied in different colonies. Pennsylvania required the 
smallest amount, and South Carolina, Virginia, and Georgia 
the largest. In Pennsylvania nearly all tax-paying free- 
men could vote ; in South Carolina a member of the 
assembly was required to own five hundred acres of land 
and ten slaves, or houses and lots worth about five thou- 
sand dollars, and a man in order to vote for a member of 
the assembly was required to own fifty acres of land or 
other property on which he paid a tax of twenty shillings 
a year. 

261. The two Branches of the Legislature ; Election and 
Appointment of Members. — In New England, members of 
the lower house represented the townships; in South Caro- 
lina, the parishes and districts ; in all the other colonies 
they represented the counties. The upper branch of the 
legislature in the colonies was called the council, and con- 
sisted usually of twelve members, called assistants, or mem- 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 197 

bers of the governor's council. Except in Connecticut and 
Rhode Island, the members of the council were either 
appointed by the governor or by the lower house, as was 
the case in Massachusetts, and approved by the governor. 
In Connecticut and Rhode Island the members of the upper 
house were elected by the people. Thus it becomes plain 
that except in these two colonies the governor, by his power 
of appointment, practically controlled the upper branch of 
the legislature. 

262. Powers of the two Houses. — It should be remem- 
bered, however, that with the exception of Connecticut and 
Rhode Island, the upper house, or council, had very little 
to do with making the laws. It could not act on any 
bills that had anything to do with levying taxes or raising 
money unless that bill had first passed the lower house. 
Thus the people of each colony, through the men whom 
they had elected as members of the lower house, kept 
control of all money matters, and insisted on the right to 
tax themselves — a right which Englishmen in England 
enjoyed. The main duty of the council was to advise the 
governor and to assist him in carrying out the duties of 
his office. It could usually review the laws passed by the 
lower house, and in some of the colonies could defeat 
them by an adverse vote. In Pennsylvania, Delaware, 
and Georgia the council could not even review the laws 
enacted by the lower house. In Connecticut and Rhode 
Island, where the members of the council, or house of 
assistants as it was called, were elected by the people, 
the upper house had almost as much power in making 
the laws as did the lower house. In each of the other 
colonies, however, the lower had by far the more power in 
making all those laws which more directly affected the 
people of that colony ; but, as will be shown later, the 



198 



The Thirteen Colonies 



governor or the king could usually veto a law passed by 
the legislature. Of course all the laws passed by a colonial 
legislature had to be in harmony with the laws of England. 

263. The Executive Department in Each Colony consisted 
of the governor and the governor's council, or upper house 
of the legislature. In Connecticut and Rhode Island the 
governor was elected by the people, as was also the case 
with the members of both the upper and the lower house 
of the legislature. 

264. Charter Government. — The form and the power of 
the government in these two colonies were defined in the 
charter granted by the king, and this form of government, 
therefore, is called charter government. 

265. Proprietary Gov- 
ernment. — In 1632 King 
Charles I granted to 
Lord Baltimore a tract 
of land that included 
what is now the state 
of Maryland. In 1620 
King Charles II granted 
to William Penn a tract 
of land that included 
what is now the present 
state of Pennsylvania, 
and three years later 
Penn bought from the 
Duke of York a tract 
that included what is 
now the state of Dela- 
ware. Baltimore and his heirs were called the proprietors 
of Maryland, and Penn and his heirs were called the pro- 
prietors of Pennsylvania and Delaware. The proprietor 




William Penn 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 199 

of Maryland and the proprietor of Pennsylvania and 
Delaware each could act as governor of his colony or 
appoint a governor. Usually they appointed governors. 
The governor of Pennsylvania was also governor of Dela- 
ware, but the latter colony had a legislature of its own. 
As the governors of these colonies were appointed by the 
proprietors, this form of government is called proprietary 
government. 

266. Royal Government. — In all the other colonies, ex- 
cept in Connecticut and Rhode Island, the governors were 
appointed by the king. This form of government is called 
royal government. While the governors of Massachusetts 
were appointed by the king, the colony also had a charter, 
and her government therefore was about half royal and 
half charter. But these names as to form of government 
are of very little importance. 

267. Important Facts Summarized. — The important 
facts are that in all the thirteen colonies the lower and 
by far the more important branch of the law-making body 
was elected and controlled by the people ; that in all the 
colonies except Connecticut and Rhode Island the council, 
or upper house of the legislature, was not elected by the 
people, but was appointed by the governor ; and that in all 
the colonies, with the same two exceptions, the governor 
was not elected by the people, but was appointed either by 
the king or by the proprietor. 

268. Powers of the Governors. — The royal governors 
and the proprietary governor of Maryland possessed very 
important powers. In addition to seeing that the laws 
were enforced, they appointed nearly all the judges and a 
large number of other officers. They also possessed the 
very important power of vetoing the laws passed by the 
legislature. In Pennsylvania and Delaware the governor 



200 The Thirteen Colonies 

had less power. He could appoint no officers except the 
judges. The legislatures controlled the government of 
these two colonies and would not permit him to interfere 
with making the laws. As the governors of Connecticut 
and Rhode Island were elected by the people, they were 
directly responsible to them. All appointments were made 
by the governor and both houses of the legislature when 
sitting together as one body. Usually the relations be- 
tween the governor and the two houses were friendly, and 
they worked together harmoniously, which was a great 
contrast to the constant quarrels between the governors 
and the legislatures of the other colonies. This was due 
to the fact that in Connecticut and Rhode Island the gov- 
ernors were elected by the people, while in the other colo- 
nies they were appointed either by the king or by the 
proprietors. 

269. The Judicial Department in the Colonies. — In some 
of the details the judicial department differed in the various 
colonies, but in general form and structure it was the same 
in all the colonies. The supreme or highest court in each 
colony consisted usually of the governor and the council, 
or upper branch of the legislature. This court corresponds 
to the supreme court in the various states at the present 
time. The supreme courts in the colonies, like the supreme 
courts in the states to-day, tried the more important cases, 
as those relating to murder and divorce. Certain cases, as 
is true also in the states to-day, could be appealed from the 
lower courts up to the supreme courts. In many of the 
colonies the county courts were next to the supreme courts, 
but in some of them there was a court between the county 
and the supreme court. This court was usually called the 
court of common pleas. The members of the county courts 
were appointed by the governor. In most of the colonies 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 201 

the county courts transacted most of the legal business, and 
the same is true of the county courts in the states at the 
present time. Below the county courts came the justice's 
courts. As is the case to-day, they were the lowest of all 
the courts, and decided the smaller civil and criminal cases. 

270. The National Government in the Colonies was the 
same as that of England. The English Parliament and 
the English king were the highest government authority 
in England, and they were also the highest government 
authority in the colonies. The English king and Parlia- 
ment bore, in a general way, the same relation to the 
colonies that the national government of the United States 
at the present time bears to the various states. When the 
people of the colonies became independent, they established 
the national government to take the place of the English 
king and the English Parliament. But it is of vital impor- 
tance to note carefully that the people of the colonies would 
not admit that the English Parliament could control them 
except in a general way. They would admit that the king 
was the head of the nation, and that in national matters he 
was supreme ; but they would not admit that Parliament 
could legislate for them except on such matters as com- 
merce and navigation, which were of a general nature and 
which affected the entire British Empire. 

271. Representation Demanded by the Colonies. — The 
people of each colony maintained that they were repre- 
sented in their colonial legislature in about the same way 
as the people of England were represented in the English 
Parliament, and that each of the colonial legislatures bore 
the same relation to the king as did Parliament, except 
that the latter could pass laws that applied to the general 
affairs of the entire Empire. When a colony had any 
business with the English government, it insisted on deal- 



202 The Thirteen Colonies 

ing with the king and not with Parliament. In taking 
this stand the people in the colonies were in the right, for 
they were simply insisting on the rights held by all Eng- 
lishmen. Englishmen had the right to decide what taxes 
they should pay and to make most of their laws in a legis- 
lature consisting of men whom they had elected. The 
colonists did not help elect the members of Parliament, 
and therefore that body had no right to interfere with 
those matters that more directly affected the home affairs 
of each colony. Neither did the king have this right ; and 
when George III through a Parliament over which he had 
gained control tried to do this the people of the colonies 
rebelled rather than lose the right to tax themselves and 
make the laws which affected their home affairs. 

272. Relation of Colonial Government to Present State 
Government. — We have already seen that local government 
of to-day is the direct outgrowth of local government in the 
colonies. From a study of colonial government it becomes 
plain that the legislative, executive, and judicial departments 
of the state governments in the United States at the present 
time are simply the modification and expansion of those de- 
partments in the colonies. The colonial legislature con- 
sisted of a lower and an upper house. The lower house 
corresponds to the lower house in the state legislature 
to-day, and there have not been many important changes 
in its nature. The council, or upper house in the colonies, 
corresponds to the state senate, or upper house in the state 
legislature at the present time, but this council has under- 
gone a great change. The members of the senate are 
elected by the people, and the senate has as much power 
in making laws as the .lower house. The governor is at 
the head of the state executive department to-day, as he 
was at the head of that department in the colonies, but 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 203 

now he is elected by the people. The same close relation 
between colonial times and the present time exists in the 
judicial department. The different courts in the colonies 
correspond closely to the courts in the states at the present 
time, except that many of the judges are now elected by 
the people. At the present time the courts are separate 
and distinct bodies, whereas in the colonies they were 
often the legislative and executive departments. 

273. Charters as State Constitutions. — The colonial 
governments of Connecticut and Rhode Island were so 
much like those of to-day that their charters were adopted 
as their state constitutions, and remained in effect until 
18 1 8 in the case of Connecticut, and until 1842 in that of 
Rhode Island. The only important change was the omis- 
sion of the king's name in the public records and docu- 
ments. 

274. Changes in Government since Colonial Times. — 
The greatest change in government since colonial times 
has been in the election of officers and in the right to vote. 
Nearly all officers — .local, state, and national — are now 
elected by the people, whereas in the colonies many of 
them were appointed. In the colonies no one who did 
not own a certain amount of property could vote for any 
officer of the colony or for any local officer. Now no 
property qualification is required of any voter in the 
United States. All this means that the people have be- 
come much more democratic since colonial times. - 

RELIGION 

275. The Right of Religious Liberty. — If the govern- 
ment of any civilized nation at the present time should kill, 
or imprison, or punish in any way, a person because he 



204 The Thirteen Colonies 

belonged to a certain church, its action would be severely 
condemned by almost every one. Scarcely any one to-day 
believes that a man should be killed or punished in any 
way simply because he may be a member of the Methodist, 
Presbyterian, Catholic, or any other church. The right 
of a person to think and to act in religious matters as he 
may desire, so long as he does not interfere with the 
rights of others, is now conceded by almost everybody. 
So thoroughly is this principle established and accepted 
that the government of the United States, or that of any 
other civilized nation, would use its entire power to pro- 
tect its citizens in their rights to enjoy quietly and peace- 
fully their religious ideas. The right of a person to enjoy 
quietly and peacefully his religious ideas is called "religious 
liberty." 

276. Religious Persecution in Europe. — Strange as it 
now seems, people have enjoyed religious liberty but for 
a very short time. Less than two hundred and fifty years 
ago men and women were put to death in almost every 
nation simply because they wished to belong to some other 
church than the one protected by the government. In 
Spain, France, and Germany thousands were killed for this 
reason, and many more were imprisoned or otherwise pun- 
ished. Hundreds were put to death in England for the 
same reason. In all of these countries men and women 
were tortured in various ways and were burned to death 
because they would not uphold the established or state 
church — that is, the church protected by the government. 
In 1686 thousands of Huguenots were massacred in France. 
Women and children were dragged from their beds in the 
night and murdered, because of their religious ideas. From 
1685 to 1700 fully two hundred thousand Huguenots left 
France in order to escape these religious persecutions. 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 205 



From 1550 to 1650 more than one hundred thousand 
perished in the religious wars of Europe. 

277. Religious Persecutions in Massachusetts. — These 
persecutions for religious reasons were not restricted to 
the Old World. Some of the English colonies in America 
did the same thing. For a long time in Massachusetts 
men and women were not permitted to establish any 




Puritan Service in Plymouth Church 

church except the Congregational, or Puritan church, or 
to teach or preach any religious doctrine except that of 
the Congregational church. The government of Massa- 
chusetts whipped, imprisoned, and banished men and 
women because of their religious ideas. These persecu- 
tions did not stop with such punishments. Four Quakers 
were hanged in Boston, — two men in 1659, one woman in 
1660, and another man in 1661. These four people were 
hanged by order of the court simply because they insisted 



2o6 



The Thirteen Colonies 



on preaching in the colony the doctrines of their church. It 
is absolutely incorrect to say that the Puritans came to New 
England for the purpose of establishing religious liberty. 
They came to the New World in order to escape the perse- 
cutions of the Established church in England. They had 
no intention whatever of permitting any church to be 
established in New England except the Congregational 
church. 

278. Religious Persecutions in the Other Colonies. — 
Some of the other colonies were almost as severe as 
the colonies of Massachusetts and New Haven. In Vir- 




Pohick Church, Mount Vernon, Virginia 

ginia there were severe laws against the members of all 
churches except those of the Established church. Members 
of other churches were imprisoned and banished from the 
colony. The Catholics first settled Maryland and granted 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 207 

religious liberty to every one in the colony ; but as soon 
as the members of the Established church secured control 
of the colony, they passed severe laws against the Catholics 
and against the members of other churches as well. With 
but few exceptions the Catholics were persecuted in all the 
colonies. 

279. Religious Liberty in Rhode Island and Pennsyl- 
vania. — Rhode Island was very liberal in religious mat- 
ters. Pennsylvania established complete religious liberty 
from the very first. The members of all churches, in- 
cluding those of the Catholic church, could worship in 
this colony without the least fear of persecution. In 1789 
Congress recommended the religious policy of Pennsyl- 
vania for adoption by all the states. After the Revolution 
there was complete religious liberty in all the states, and 
no public money whatever has since been used for the 
support of any church. 

280. Causes of Religious Persecutions. — It is but natu- 
ral that people to-day should condemn severely the re- 
ligious persecutions referred to above. But it should be 
remembered that the people of to-day would probably 
have done the same thing had they lived in those times 
and under the conditions which then existed. Neither can 
the churches be held responsible for these persecutions, 
because this narrow spirit in religious matters represented 
simply the general spirit of the times. In Europe the 
persecutions were carried on in the name of the Catholic 
church ; in Virginia and Maryland and to a large extent 
in England, in the name of the Church of England; and 
in New England, in the name of the Puritan church. Until 
about two hundred and fifty years ago, the leading or state 
religions of almost every nation during the past twenty-five 
hundred years persecuted and even killed those who did not 



208 The Thirteen Colonies 

agree with them on religious questions. It may be said 
that religious persecutions have been due to the fact that 
the great mass of the people were not as well educated nor 
as highly civilized as they are at the present time. 

281. Relation between Political and Religious Liberty. — 
It has been true in the history of the world, that when a 
large number of the people in a nation become fairly well 
educated, they have demanded political liberty, that is, 
the right to make the laws which they must obey. 
When the people of a nation have secured the right to 
make their own laws, they have usually become more 
liberal in religious matters and have insisted on religious 
liberty. This tends to prove that religious liberty in a 
nation follows closely general education and political lib- 
erty, and that it does not depend on the attitude of any 
church. Man by nature is apt to be narrow and unjust in 
religious matters, and it has required long centuries of 
education and civilization to make him broad and liberal 
along these lines. 

282. Religious Liberty and the Establishment of Public 
Schools. — The United States was one of the first nations 
to establish complete religious liberty. At the beginning of 
the Revolution most of the colonies had already established 
religious liberty, and the Revolution swept away the last 
vestige of religious persecution. One of the main things 
that caused the growth of religious liberty in the colonies 
was the establishment of public schools. For centuries the 
churches of the leading religion of a nation had control of 
education. This was also true in early Virginia and most 
of New England ; but gradually in nearly all the colonies 
the government took control of education. This step soon 
caused education to become more generally diffused among 
the people. 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 209 

283. Public Funds and Church Schools. — It also pre- 
vented any church from using any public money to es- 
tablish schools in which children were taught its own 
doctrines. The churches may, and most of them do, main- 
tain private schools ; but it is the settled policy of the 
United States to maintain a free public school system, 
which shall not be under the control of any church and in 
the schools of which the doctrines of no church shall be 
taught. 

284. Separation of Church and State. — Another thing 
that helped to cause the rapid growth of religious liberty 
in the colonies was the separation of church and state. 
In the colonies of Massachusetts and New Haven the 
church and state were united at first, and in Virginia 
and several of the other southern colonies public money 
was used for the support of the church. But the Puritan 
church was soon separated from the government in New 
England, and while the Established church in Virginia 
received public money until about the time of the Revo- 
lution, it had little or no control of the government of 
that colony. This separation of church and state helped 
the growth of religious liberty, because when a church 
loses control of the government it is placed on an equal 
footing with all the other churches, and has no power to 
persecute any one. 

285. Religion a Personal Question. — This is as it should 
be. Religion is a question that each person must settle for 
himself — it is a question between each person and the 
Supreme Being. The churches can better carry out their 
mission without control of the government or of the free 
public school system, and no church nor person should 
persecute, or otherwise interfere with, any one because of 
his religious ideas. 



2io The Thirteen Colonies 



EDUCATION 

286. Colonial and Modern Schools Compared. — Very few 
of the boys and girls who are now attending the public 
schools in the United States realize what a great advan- 
tage they have over those who went to school fifty or 
even twenty-five years ago. The primary, the grammar, 
and the high schools have improved wonderfully during 
the past twenty-five years. Eighty-five years ago there 
were very few free public schools in the United States, and 
they did very poor work as compared with those of to-day. 
The average high school now is doing as good work and is 
offering as high-grade courses of study as were Harvard 
and Yale colleges in 1800, and this was one hundred and 
seventy years after Boston was founded, and one hundred 
and sixty-four years after Harvard College was founded. 
It has been said by one writer that the grammar schools 
of to-day are doing as good work as did William and Mary 
College in Virginia one hundred and twenty-seven years 
ago at the beginning of the Revolution. For one hundred 
and fifty years after Virginia and New England were first 
settled there were practically no public schools of any kind 
in any of the southern colonies. While it is true that soon 
after they were founded all the New England colonies 
except Rhode Island passed laws which compelled every 
town with fifty or more families to maintain a public 
school of some kind, these laws were not always properly 
enforced. From the very first, however, there were a 
number of schools in New England, and in matters of 
general education this section was far ahead of all the 
other colonies. Nearly everybody in New England was 
able to read and write, but a majority of the children were 
taught at home. 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 211 

287. Education in England. — The free public school 
system of England was not established until 1870. When 
the colonies were first settled, and for a long time after- 
ward, education in England, as compared with that of 
to-day, was in a most wretched condition. In 1700 more 
than half of the English people could neither read nor 
write their own names, and as late as thirty-two years 
ago (1873) twenty out of every hundred could not. 
When the English colonies in America were founded, 
there were no public schools in England. There was 
a number of church and other private schools, but a 
large majority of the boys and girls did not attend these. 
Therefore when the" Englishmen who founded the colonies 
left the mother country, there were no public schools there, 
and education was controlled by the church and by private 
individuals. It was but natural that these men should 
have followed the same plan of education in the New 
World. New conditions in the colonies caused this plan to 
be changed somewhat. In some of the colonies the change 
was hardly an improvement ; in New England and in cer- 
tain of the middle colonies the change was for the better. 

288. Education in the Southern Colonies ; the Clergy and 
the Schools. — At the time the southern colonies were 
settled the churches and their ministers had had control of 
educational affairs in England and in all the other nations 
of Europe for more than fifteen hundred years. The gov- 
ernment, or civil power, did not control nor provide for 
either public or private schools, this matter being left to 
the church and to private individuals. When the southern 
colonies were settled, therefore, it was but natural that the 
people should leave the question of education to the church 
just as they had done while in England. The church that 
was recognized by the government in all the southern colo- 



212 



The Thirteen Colonies 



nies, except in Maryland for a short time, was the Church 
of England. Unfortunately, the Established church in 
these colonies, until after the Revolution, had compara- 
tively few ministers well fitted to take the lead in popular 
education. As a result educational conditions in the south- 
ern colonies were not so good as in England. 

289. Effect of Plantation Life on Education. — Among 
the chief obstacles in the way of education in the southern 




An Old Log Schoolhouse 

colonies were the manner of living and the opposition 
of the royal governors to any general system of edu- 
cation. As the land was held and cultivated in large 
tracts, called plantations, the population was widely scat- 
tered, and this naturally hindered the building up of towns 
and schools. A plantation generally contained hundreds 
of acres, and on this lived the owner and his family and 
a large number of servants, both black and white. The 
planter usually had a tutor for his children, — often the 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 2 1 3 

minister, — and after preparation under the tutor the sons 
were often sent to England to finish their education. 

290. Opposition of Royal Governors to Education. — This 
plan of restricting education largely to the upper class 
was encouraged by most of the royal governors, they 
being strongly opposed to any general system of educa- 
tion. They believed that the lower classes should not be 
educated, as that would make them less contented and 
harder to govern. This feeling is shown plainly in a 
report made in 1671 by Sir William Berkeley, royal gov- 
ernor of Virginia. In this report to the Lord Commission- 
ers of Foreign Plantations he said : " I thank God there 
are no free schools nor printing, and I hope we shall 
not have these hundred years ; for learning has brought 
disobedience, and heresy, and sects into this world, and 
printing has divulged them, and libels against the best 
government. God keep us from both." 

291. Schools in the Southern Colonies ; College of William 
and Mary. — With popular education in the hands of min- 
isters who took very little interest in it, with most of 
the royal governors opposed to a system of general 
education, and with the adverse conditions of the planta- 
tion system of living, nothing but a very poor system 
of schools could be expected to exist in the southern 
colonies. And just such a system did exist to a lamen- 
table degree. Up to the time of the Revolution, Georgia 
and South Carolina had scarcely any schools whatever. 
North Carolina had but two, and they were of little im- 
portance. There were no public schools in Virginia, but 
there were a few private ones, taught by the ministers 
and freed servants. A few schools were established 
by wealthy men who were interested in education, and 
these were among the best in the colony. A college 



214 The Thirteen Colonies 

was established in 1692 by royal charter from King 
William and Queen Mary, and was given their names. 
Before the Revolution, however, the work done by this 
college was no higher than that done to-day in the better 
grammar schools. In Maryland the condition of the 
schools was about the same as in Virginia. The legisla- 
ture passed several laws which provided for the establish- 
ment of a public school in every county. Some of these 
schools were established, but they had become almost 
worthless, or had ceased to exist, by the time of the Revo- 
lution. Maryland deserves credit for having been the 
only southern colony that made any real effort to establish 
schools that would be under the control of the people of 
the colony, represented by the legislature. Massachusetts, 
however, had set the example in this important matter 
long before Maryland passed the first law of this kind 
in 1696. 

292. Education in New England ; Influence of Puritan- 
ism. — The church and the ministers determined the kind 
of education in New England, just as they had in the 
southern colonies. In New England they were successful 
in establishing a better system of education than that which 
existed in England. In the New England colonies the 
Puritan ministers belonged to the highest class; they were 
the best-educated men in these colonies, usually college 
graduates; they were intensely earnest and devoted to their 
work, and their lives were pure, honorable, and upright. 
The Puritan religion demanded that every man and woman 
should read and understand the Bible, and it therefore 
became the duty of the ministers to see to it that all the 
people should receive enough education to enable them to 
do this. It thus becomes plain that it was the character 
of the ministers and the nature of the Puritan religion 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 215 

that caused to be established in New England a better 
system of education than was established in the southern 
colonies. 

293. First Public School Law. — In 1647 the legislature 
of the Massachusetts Bay colony enacted a law which 
required every town that contained fifty or more families 
to maintain a school. The schools provided for by this law 
were not free schools, as are the public schools of to-day. 
The pupils who attended were required to pay tuition. 
Neither did this law result in the creation of a general 
system of public schools, because it was not always obeyed 
and could not be enforced. A number of schools had been 
established, and a few more were established under this 
law. Reading, writing, spelling, and arithmetic were taught 
in these schools. 

294. The State and Education. — This law of 1647 was 
of great importance, not merely because of the schools 
which were established under it, but because it was the 
first time in modern history that the legislature or civil 
power of any colony, state, or nation had provided for a 
public school system. For more than fifteen hundred 
years education had been entirely under the control of the 
church. This law established the principle that the state, 
a civil power, should control educational matters. While 
this law, therefore, was of some importance to early New 
England, it was to be of much greater importance to the 
United States, because it helped to establish the principle on 
which our whole free school system of to-day rests. Doubt- 
less we should have our free public schools to-day, whatever 
might have been done in colonial times ; but great honor 
and credit are due to Massachusetts for establishing so early 
the great and valuable principle of civil control of educa- 
tion ; for without a free public school system, which 




Frontispiece to an Old Spelling Book 



216 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 



217 



provides for the education of all the people, a free and 
liberal government cannot long exist. 

295. Debt of Education to Puritan Ministers. — The 
passage of this law and the early establishment of 
this principle were due to the Puritan religion and the 
Puritan ministers. Up to 1684 the church and state in 
Massachusetts were united. None but members of the 
Puritan church could hold office or vote ; and as the 
ministers were all able men, well educated, and held in 
high esteem by the members of their churches, their 
ideas and wishes were carried out in the laws. As was 
stated before, the Puritan religion required that every- 
body should be educated in order to read and understand 
the Bible. It was the duty of the ministers therefore to 
see that the people were educated, and as this could be 
done best by the civil authorities, they had the govern- 
ment of the colony establish a public school system. 

296. Elementary Education in New England — before 
the Revolution. — Although the school law passed by Mas- 
sachusetts in 1647 was not complied with by many towns 
and was opposed by some, the colony passed other laws 
of a similar nature, all tending to create a public school 
system. Some of these laws imposed fines on towns that 
neglected to maintain schools. Many towns paid these 
fines rather than comply with the law. Notwithstanding 
this opposition many public schools were established, and 
the children who did not attend them or private schools 
were taught at home. As a result, nearly everybody 
in Massachusetts could read and write. When the col- 
ony became a royal province in 1684, and the right to 
vote and to hold office was not restricted to members of 
the Puritan church, the public schools began to decline. 
This was because the Puritan ministers then lost their 



2i 8 The Thirteen Colonies 

influence over the legislature, and could no longer secure 
school legislation. But the good example set, and the 
good results secured, were of great value. 

297. Education after the Revolution. — After the colo- 
nies became the United States, these old laws of Mas- 
sachusetts were studied, and they had their effect in 
shaping the present free public school system of the 
United States. These laws soon influenced the other New 
England colonies. Connecticut passed school laws very 
much like those of Massachusetts, and when New Hamp- 
shire was separated from Massachusetts and became a 
royal province in 1679, she continued in effect the school 
laws of Massachusetts. As a result, the public schools in 
these two colonies were very much like those of the older 
colony. Because of the unsettled condition of the govern- 
ment in Rhode Island, the condition of education was not 
so good there as in the other New England colonies. 
Several schools were established, however, and earnest 
efforts made to better the condition of education. 

298. New England Colleges. — Not only do the New 
England colonies deserve great credit for beginning our 
public school system, but they also deserve great credit for 
laying the foundation of some of the greatest universities 
in the United States. There were many graduates of 
English universities among the early settlers of the Mas- 
sachusetts Bay colony, and as soon as the colony became 
well established, they set about founding a college 
for the training of ministers. This was accomplished 
within seven years after the charter of the Massachu- 
setts Bay Company was granted. In 1636 the General 
Court made an appropriation for the establishment of a 
college at Newtown (later called Cambridge), and two 
years later the college was given the name Harvard, in 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 219 

honor of John Harvard, who died leaving his library and 
a large part of his estate to the college. Sixty-five years 
later Yale College was founded in Connecticut on the same 
general lines as the older college. Still later Dartmouth 
College was founded in New Hampshire and Brown College 
in Rhode Island. While these colleges, during the colonial 
period, were little better than our present high schools, 
they kept alive and encouraged a love of learning; and 
after the Revolution they gradually developed, and some 
of them are now among the leading universities of the 
world. 

299. Education in the Middle Colonies ; New York. — In 
the matter of education the middle colonies were behind 
New England and ahead of the southern colonies. New 
York was as well provided with schools as any of the 
middle colonies. When under control of the Dutch, 
several fairly good schools were established and were 
partly supported by the government ; but when the 
English got control of the province, education declined. 
There was no well-established church to take charge of 
education. The legislature did nothing except to give a 
little financial aid' to some private schools in the city of 
New York, and to pass an act for the establishment of 
grammar schools in the same city. The schools established 
under this act were few and they did not prosper. The 
best schools in the colony were the private schools in the 
city of New York. Some of them were in charge of fairly 
good teachers, and did fairly good work in the lower 
branches. 

300. Education in New Jersey. — In New Jersey the 
condition of education was about the same as in New 
York. The legislature did nothing toward the support 
of the schools. Some of the towns that had been settled 



220 The Thirteen Colonies 

by people from New England levied taxes to help pay 
the school-teacher, and in a number of towns very good 
schools were maintained. The Presbyterian church was 
earnest in its effort to educate the people, and succeeded 
in maintaining a number of schools in which reading, writ- 
ing, spelling, and arithmetic were taught. The majority of 
the children in this colony, as in New York,, had no chance 
to attend a school of any kind, and had to depend entirely 
on their parents, friends, or minister for instruction. 

301. Education in Pennsylvania and Delaware; Benjamin 
Franklin. — Outside of Philadelphia and one or two other 
towns, the condition of education in Pennsylvania and 
Delaware was very poor, much worse than in New Jersey 
or New York. The majority of the people in the country 
could neither read nor write. Here, as in New Jersey, the 
Presbyterians made earnest efforts to educate the people. 
They maintained their " log-cabin " schoolhouses in the 
face of the most trying conditions, and did a noble work 
for the colony. From the very first the city of Philadel- 
phia maintained schools where any child could attend by 
paying a small tuition fee, and if the child were too poor 
to pay this fee, there were charity schools which he could 
attend where no charge was made. In matters of educa- 
tion, newspapers, and learning in general, Philadelphia 
was one of the most progressive cities in the colonies. At 
the time of the Revolution she possessed two good libraries 
and was the center of learning in the thirteen colonies. 
Franklin was her leading citizen, and the greatest scholar 
in America. His scientific researches, one result of which 
was the discovery of the principle of the lightning rod, 
made him honored and respected in Europe. 

302. Colleges of the Middle Colonies. — The middle colo- 
nies, like New England, laid the foundations of some of 




Benjamin Franklin 
At the age of sixty, after a painting by Martin 



222 The Thirteen Colonies 

the greatest universities in the United States. The first 
movement toward founding a college was in 1743, when 
Franklin made plans for establishing a university. He 
was unable to accomplish anything then, but six years later 
organized an academy which, by 1775, grew into a college 
and received a charter. This was the founding of the 
University of Pennsylvania, which perhaps ranks first 
among all the colonial colleges, especially along scientific 
lines. Within six years after its founding there were over 
four hundred students in attendance, and the college was 
sufficiently prosperous to provide a high class of instruction 
for all. New Jersey owes her first college to the Pres- 
byterian church, which in 1746 established a college at 
Princeton. While this college (now Princeton University) 
did not have as rapid a growth as the one in Pennsyl- 
vania, it was well managed, and the instruction was good. 
In about the middle of the eighteenth century the Episcopal 
church founded King's College (now Columbia University) 
in New York City; but this institution did not prosper in 
colonial days, owing to the general feeling of opposition 
which then existed in New York toward the Episcopal 
church. It has since developed, and now, with Princeton 
and the University of Pennsylvania, ranks among our 
greatest institutions of higher education. 



QUESTIONS AND TOPICS 

INSTITUTIONAL LIFE IN THE COLONIES 

Introductory 

Questions for Class Recitations 

Explain carefully what is meant by the institutional life of a nation. 
Show carefully by illustrations how the life of every citizen is related 



Questions and Topics 223 

to each of the five institutions. Why should a nation be judged 
largely by the condition of its institutions? Explain why topography, 
climate, and soil are important influences in history. Explain fully 
and carefully how topography, climate, and soil have affected the his- 
tory of the United States. (All of the questions given above are some- 
what difficult, but they are very important and should receive most 
careful consideration.) Make a careful comparison of the topography, 
climate, and soil of the southern colonies and the New England colo- 
nies. Compare the topography, climate, and soil of the middle colonies 
with the topography, climate, and soil of the New England and the 
southern colonies. 

INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS 
Questions for Class Recitations 

Why do topography, climate, and soil affect business or indus- 
trial conditions more than any other of the institutions? Describe 
fully what industrial life includes. What were the leading southern 
products ? Tell all you can about the culture of tobacco in the south- 
ern colonies. Give a careful explanation of why laws were passed 
to regulate its production and the quality exported. Discuss the 
production of rice and indigo in the southern colonies. Discuss the 
production of cotton in these colonies. Tell to what extent other 
products were raised in each of the southern colonies. Explain care- 
fully how topography, climate, and soil encouraged the growth of large 
plantations in the South. Discuss the selling and buying of produce 
and goods on the plantations. Discuss the effect of large plantations 
on the growth of cities. Explain carefully how the large plantations 
affected the growth of slavery. Why were there few free laborers in 
the South ? How did the lack of free labor affect the growth of manu- 
factures, commerce, and similar industries? 

Why were there no large plantations in New England? Why did 
the farmers of New England raise a great variety of products instead 
of a few staples, as did the planters of the South? What caused many 
of the people of New England to engage in other occupations besides 
farming? Describe the manufactures of New England. Tell what you 
can of the fisheries. Discuss the conditions of trade and commerce, 
and explain carefully their effect on the wealth and prosperity of New 
England. Why was there so little slavery in New England? If in- 



224 The Thirteen Colonies 

stead of a hilly country, poor soil, and cold winters, New England had 
had a warm, pleasant climate, and had consisted of broad, fertile plains, 
what would have been the effect on industrial life and on slavery? 
Describe carefully the condition of farming in the middle colonies, 
and explain carefully how this condition of fanning in these colonies 
was related to topography, climate, and soil. Compare the condition 
of farming in the middle colonies with its condition in the southern 
colonies and in New England. Describe the manufactures of the 
middle colonies. Why did England try to prevent the growth of 
manufactures in the colonies? How did this affect the colonies? 
Describe the commerce of Philadelphia and New York. Explain care- 
fully the effect of industrial conditions in the middle colonies on slav- 
ery. Compare this effect with the effect of these conditions on slavery 
in New England and in the southern colonies. What does all this 
prove as regards the effect of topography, climate, and soil on the his- 
tory of the United States? 

Compare the condition of the professions of law and medicine in the 
colonies with the condition of these professions to-day. Describe the 
character and position of the ministers of New England. Explain very 
fully why the ministers were of so much importance and had so much 
more influence in New England than in any of the other colonies. In 
what way and why did the ministers of Massachusetts lose much of 
their influence after that colony became a royal province? Describe 
the character and work of the ministers of the middle colonies. What 
is a state or Established church ? Is it good public policy to have a 
church supported by public taxes ? What can you say of the ministers 
of the Established church in the southern colonies? Why did they 
have less influence than the ministers of the other colonies or of the 
other churches in the South ? When the Episcopal church ceased to 
be the state church, what change took place in the character and influ- 
ence of its ministers ? Describe the character and work of the ministers 
of the other churches in the southern colonies. 

What was the general condition of the medical profession in the 
colonies? Tell what you can of this profession in Pennsylvania, noting 
the ability of the doctors, the medical schools, and the hospitals. What 
can you say of the profession of law in the colonies? What change 
was there in the condition of this profession just before the Revolution ? 
Compare the southern with the middle and New England colonies in 
respect to the character and ability of their lawyers. 



Questions and Topics 225 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

What is meant by the institutional life of a nation? Show by illus- 
trations how the life of every citizen is related to each of the five insti- 
tutions. Why are topography, climate, and soil important influences in 
history? Discuss the topography, climate, and soil of the South and 
their effect on the industrial life of the southern colonies. Discuss the 
topography, climate, and soil of the middle colonies and New England, 
and their effect on the industrial life of these sections. Discuss the 
causes of the growth of large plantations in the South. Discuss the 
relation of the plantation system to the growth of slavery and to 
the growth of cities. Discuss the effect of slavery on manufactures 
and commerce in the South. Compare the industrial conditions of 
New England with those of the southern colonies, and discuss the cause 
of difference. Discuss the commercial industries of the middle colonies. 
Discuss the conditions which tended to cause the growth of slavery in 
the South and to cause abolition in the North. Show the effect of this 
on the industrial and political life of the nation. Discuss the character 
and position of the ministers in the colonies, comparing those of dif- 
ferent sections of the country. Discuss the condition of the medical 
profession in the colonies. Discuss the profession of law in the colonies. 

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 

Questions for Class Recitations 

(In connection with the questions on Social Conditions, each pupil 
should read the first number of Hart's " Source Readers in American 
History," pp. 165-199, and the second number of these readers, 
pp. 1-69. See "Explanatory and Suggestive," page ix.) Describe 
fully what constitutes social life. In what way is the institution of 
society related to the other institutions? Explain fully the more im- 
portant conditions affecting social life in the colonies, and compare 
those conditions with some of the conditions which exist to-day. 
Name and describe carefully the four classes of society that existed in 
the southern colonies. (Each pupil should draw a map of the southern 
colonies and indicate plainly on it the strip of country in which the 
large plantations and the slave population existed.) What was the 
condition of the negro slave when he was first brought to America ? 
Why was he not educated in the southern colonies? Describe the 



226 The Thirteen Colonies 

laws relating to the negroes. Why were such laws passed ? Tell all 
you can about the actual treatment of the slaves. Explain carefully 
why there was a difference in the treatment of slaves in the extreme 
southern colonies — -Georgia and South Carolina — and those southern 
colonies farther north. Give a careful discussion of some of the results 
of slavery. Describe the character of the indented servants of the 
southern colonies. Give a full description of how they were treated. 
Compare their condition with that of the slaves. What distinctions 
existed between the middle and upper classes in the southern colonies? 
In what way did slavery affect the attitude of the upper class toward 
tradesmen and merchants ? Describe the character and position of the 
southern gentlemen. What can you say of their patriotism? Name 
some of the leading patriots of our nation who belonged to the upper 
class in the southern colonies. Show how the conditions of plantation 
life tended to develop men of strong character and ability. Describe 
the industrial life on a large plantation. Describe the dress of the upper 
class. What amusements were most popular with the Southerners? 
Describe the rural field sports. 

What classes of society existed in New England? Describe each 
class. Describe the treatment of the slaves and indented servants. 
Upon what basis did the distinction between the middle and upper 
classes rest in. New England? How did this differ from the Southern 
basis of aristocracy ? How did a man's social position in New England 
affect his prominence in politics? How did class distinctions enter 
into the everyday life of the people? How did they affect college 
life ? What was the effect of the Puritan religion on the dress and 
amusements of the people? Describe the amusements of the New 
England people. What effect did the coming of the royal governors 
have on the social life of New England ? 

Compare the middle colonies with those of New England and the south- 
ern colonies in regard to white and slave population. What classes of 
society were found in the middle colonies ? Compare the treatment of 
slaves in these colonies with their treatment in the southern colonies 
and in New England. What was the character of the indented ser- 
vants of the middle colonies? What proportion of the total population 
of the middle colonies was of English descent ? Compare this propor- 
tion with the proportion which existed in New England and in the 
southern colonies. Of what did the aristocracy of New York consist? 
Compare the owners of large estates on the Hudson with the large land- 



Questions and Topics 227 

holders of the South in respect to position and power. Describe the 
dress and amusements of the people of the country and small towns. 
Describe the dress and amusements of the upper classes in the cities. 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the general conditions affecting social life in the colonies. 
Discuss briefly the classes of society existing in the colonies. Discuss 
the condition of the slaves in the colonies, comparing their condition 
in the various colonies. Discuss the middle class in New England and 
in the southern and middle colonies. Discuss the character and posi- 
tion of the upper class in New England, and in the southern and 
middle colonies. Discuss the social distinctions existing in New 
England and in the South. Discuss the dress and amusements of the 
people of the colonies. 

GOVERNMENT 
Questions for Class Recitations 

Under what different forms or divisions of government does each 
person live ? Briefly describe each division. Explain carefully how 
each person is a member of each of these divisions. Explain carefully 
why the laws of these different forms of government do not conflict. 
How did these different forms of government and these different laws 
come to exist ? Why do we have so many different divisions of gov- 
ernment and so many different laws ? What is national government ? 
Explain carefully what constitutes local government. What is the most 
important unit or division of local government ? Who carries out the 
powers and duties of the county ? How are the members of this board 
selected ? By what two names are the members of this board known ? 
Do most of the states call them supervisors or commissioners ? How 
are the supervisors elected ? How are the commissioners elected ? 
Explain carefully the powers and duties of the county board of commis- 
sioners or supervisors. Name some of the other more important county 
officials. (Before taking up the next topic, the teacher and pupils should 
make a careful study of the duties and powers of all their county officials, 
and also of their city, township, and school officials.) 

Compare the powers of the county in the colonies with its powers 
to-day. Compare the powers and duties of the county in the New 
England, the southern, and the middle colonies. Explain carefully 



228 The Thirteen Colonies 

what constituted the township in New England. Explain carefully 
what constituted the town meeting. Give a careful explanation of the 
duties, powers, and value of the town meeting. Compare the powers 
and duties of the town meeting in New England during colonial times 
with those which the county court then possessed there. Compare the 
powers and duties of the town meeting in New England at the present 
time with those which the county officials now possess there. Explain 
carefully what constituted the parish and district in South Carolina dur- 
ing colonial times. Compare carefully the powers and duties of the 
county in South Carolina during colonial times with those which the 
parish and district possessed there at that time. Compare carefully 
the duties and powers of the county in South Carolina at the present 
time with those which the parish and township now possess there. 
What is the nature of the parish as it exists in Louisiana to-day ? 

What were the powers and duties of the parish in Virginia during 
colonial times ? What was the county board in Virginia called ? 
What were the members of this board called ? How were they elected ? 
Explain carefully the powers and duties of the county court in Virginia. 
During colonial times, how did the powers and duties of the county in 
Virginia compare with the powers and duties of the county in Georgia, 
North Carolina, and Maryland ? Explain carefully the changes which 
have taken place in the county in these states since colonial times. To 
what extent did the Virginia county affect the organization of the county 
in the West ? Compare the powers and duties of the county in the middle 
colonies with those which the township and parish possessed at that 
time. Why does the county as it existed in the colonies of New York 
and Pennsylvania deserve special notice ? Give a careful discussion of 
the New York county, and explain carefully to what extent it affected 
the organization of the county in the West. Give a careful discussion 
of the Pennsylvania county and explain carefully to what extent it 
affected the organization of the county in the West. Compare the New 
York, the Pennsylvania, and the Virginia county of colonial times with 
regard to powers and duties in local government. 

State briefly, but clearly, what the result has been in the contest of 
the county, township, and parish for power in local government. What 
will very likely be the future of the county as to power in local affairs ? 
Explain carefully the influence and the value of the principle of town- 
ship government in the smaller local affairs. Explain carefully why the 
people desire to have these smaller units of local government. Give a 



Questions and Topics 229 

careful discussion as to what extent this desire is being carried out at 
the present time. What is the value of these smaller units of local 
government ? What is the duty of every citizen toward them ? 

What affairs of government are under the control of the state govern- 
ment ? What affairs of government are under the control of the na- 
tional government ? How did each of these forms of government secure 
the powers which they have ? Explain carefully how the people in 
matters of government in the United States are the source of all power. 
Of what three departments does national, state, and local government 
consist ? Explain carefully the general powers and duties of each 
department. What is the object for dividing government into these 
three departments ? Of what two houses or divisions does the legisla- 
tive department of the state and national government consist ? What 
is the object for this division ? What is the legislative department 
of the county ? How are the members of the legislative department of 
state and local government elected ? Discuss the powers and duties of 
the legislative department of state government. 

What is the highest executive officer in the national government 
called ? What is he called in the state governments ? Who are the 
executive officers in the county government ? What are some of the 
other state executive officers called ? How are the state executive 
officers selected ? Explain carefully the general powers and duties of 
the state executive officers. Of what do the judicial departments of 
the state and national governments consist ? How are the state and 
local judges elected ? Explain carefully the powers and duties of these 
different courts and how cases may be appealed from one to the other. 

In what respects are local, state, and national government alike ? 
Explain carefully the real difference between these three forms of divi- 
sions of government. (Before taking up the next topic the teacher 
and pupils should make a general but careful study of the government 
of the state in which they live.) 

Into how many departments was the government of the various 
colonies divided ? What was the lower house of the legislature called 
in the different colonies ? How were the members of the lower house 
elected ? Explain carefully what qualifications were required of those 
who voted for members of the lower house. What was the upper house 
of the legislature called ? How were its members selected in the various 
colonies ? Give a careful discussion of the powers and duties of the 
lower house in the various colonies. Give a careful discussion of the 



230 The Thirteen Colonies 

powers and duties of the upper house of the legislature in the various 
colonies. Compare these powers and duties with the powers and duties 
which belong to the upper branch of the state legislature at the present 
time. Of what did the executive department of the government in the 
various colonies consist ? Explain carefully how the government in 
each colony was selected. Explain how the manner of selecting the 
governors gave rise to three so-called forms of government in the colo- 
nies. Explain in what respects these three forms of government 
differed. Explain carefully how the people really controlled the law- 
making body in each colony. What were the powers and duties of the 
governors in each colony ? Of what did the judicial department in 
each colony consist ? What were the different courts in each colony 
called ? How were the judges of these courts selected ? What were 
the powers and duties of these different courts ? 

Of what did the national government in the colonies consist ? Ex- 
plain carefully to what extent the colonists were willing to acknowledge 
the authority of Parliament. In what respect did Parliament and the 
legislatures of the colonies bear the same relation to the king? Why 
was this principle very important to the colonists, and why did they 
insist on carrying it out ? 

Compare carefully the lower branch of the colonial legislatures with 
the lower branch of the state legislatures. Compare carefully the upper 
branch of the colonial legislatures with the upper branch of the state 
legislatures. Compare carefully the executive departments of the colo- 
nial legislatures with the executive department of the state legislatures. 
Compare carefully the judicial departments of the colonial legislatures 
with the judicial departments of the state legislatures. To what ex- 
tent does all this indicate that state government is simply the modifi- 
cation and expansion of colonial government? In what respects has 
government changed most since colonial times? 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the relation between local government in the colonies and 
local government at the present time. Show in what way the state 
legislative department to-day is simply an outgrowth and modification 
of the legislative department of the colonies. In what ways do the state 
executive departments to-day resemble the executive departments in the 
colonies ? Explain the relation between the judicial department of 
to-day and the judicial department of the colonies. What change has 



Questions and Topics 231 

there been since colonial times as to the number of officers elected 
directly by the people ? What change has there been as to the qualifi- 
cations of voters ? 

RELIGION 

Questions for Class Recitations 

Explain carefully to what extent a person at the present time may 
do as he pleases in regard to religious matters. What is meant by 
religious liberty ? Give a full description of the religious persecutions 
which have taken place in Europe. Compare the condition of religious 
liberty in the United States to-day with its condition in Europe about 
the time the colonies were settled. Did the Puritans come to America 
for the purpose of establishing religious liberty ? Tell all you can about 
the persecution of people in New England on account of their reli- 
gious ideas. Describe the religious persecutions in the other colonies. 
Describe the laws made in the various colonies against certain churches. 
Describe the religious conditions in Rhode Island and Pennsylvania. 
To what conditions are religious persecutions due ? What is the 
relation between political and religious liberty ? How are general 
education and political liberty related ? Explain how the establishment 
of public schools aided the growth of religious liberty in the United 
States. Explain carefully the importance of the free public school 
system to the welfare of the nation. What is meant by the separation 
of church and state ? How did the separation of church and state 
affect the growth of religious liberty in the colonies ? 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the condition of religious liberty in Europe about the time 
the colonies were settled. Discuss the condition of religious liberty in 
the colonies. Discuss the growth of religious liberty in the United 
States. Discuss the causes of religious persecution. 

EDUCATION 

Questions for Class Recitations 

(In connection with the questions on Education, each pupil should 
read the first number of Hart's " Source Readers in American History," 
pp. 201-233. See "Explanatory and Suggestive," page ix.) Compare 
carefully the schools of the colonies with those of to-day in regard to 
number, kind, and nature of work. Explain carefully the condition of 



232 The Thirteen Colonies 

schools and general education in England at the time the colonies were 
settled. Describe the school system that existed in England at that 
time. Explain fully, how and to what extent the condition of education 
in England affected the condition of education in the colonies. 

How did the character of the ministers influence educational condi- 
tions in the South ? What was the effect of plantation life on the 
building up of schools ? What was the attitude of the royal governors 
toward general education, and what effect did this have on the establish- 
ment of schools ? How were the sons of the rich planters educated ? 
Describe the condition of education in the southern colonies. Tell 
what you can of the founding of the college of William and Mary. 
Give a full description of the influence of the Puritan ministers on 
education in New England. Explain carefully how the Puritan religion 
served to encourage education and the establishment of schools. Tell 
what you can of the first laws establishing public schools in America. 
Explain carefully why these laws were of great importance in the history 
of the world. Describe the public schools in each of the New England 
colonies. Describe the founding of colleges in New England. Tell 
what you can of the customs and studies in these colleges. Compare 
the schools of the middle colonies with those of New England and the 
southern colonies. What support did the government give to the 
schools in the middle colonies ? Describe the educational work of 
the churches. How did the general education of the people of the 
middle colonies compare with that of the people of New England ? 
Describe the schools of Philadelphia, and explain fully the work of 
Franklin in advancing education. Compare the colleges of the middle 
colonies with those of New England. 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the educational conditions in England at the time of the 
founding of the colonies. Explain how the plan of education in 
England affected education in the colonies. Discuss the influence of 
the ministry upon education in the colonies. Discuss the origin of the 
public school system. Compare New England, the southern, and 
the middle colonies in respect to general education. Why was New 
England ahead of the other colonies in the matter of general education? 
Discuss the colleges of the colonies. Compare in a general way edu- 
cational conditions in the colonies with educational conditions in the 
United States at the present time. 



ORIGIN OF AMERICAN 
INSTITUTIONS 

I. American Institutions : Changes in, and from where derived 
II. Government in England 

i. Relation to Government in the United States 

2. Outline of Struggle between King and People 

3. The Five Rights demanded by the English People 
(a) The Right of Taxation 

(5) The Right of Habeas Corpus 

(c) The Right of Trial by Jury 

(d) The Right of Privacy in the Home 

(e) The Right of refusing to quarter Soldiers 

4. How Englishmen secured their Rights 

III. Transfer of English Rights and Institutions to America 

303. Development of American Institutions ; Changes in, 
and from where Derived. — The discussion and study of 
" Institutional Life in the Colonies " has indicated plainly 
that the five institutions as they exist in the United States 
to-day are the direct outgrowth and modification of these 
institutions as they existed in the colonies. These five insti- 
tutions of business, society, government, religion, and edu- 
cation have changed somewhat since the Revolution. With 
some of them the change has been greater than with others. 
There has been a great change in the institution of busi- 
ness or industrial life, due largely to the great number of 
useful inventions and discoveries, such as the railroad, tele- 
graph, electricity, and the vast supply of useful machinery 
of all kinds. These discoveries and inventions, together 
with changes in the other institutions, have brought about 

233 



234 Origin of American Institutions 

a great change in the institution of society or social life. 
There has been considerable change since the time of the 
colonies in the institutions of government, religion, and 
education. 

304. Real Nature of Institutions Unchanged. — It is 
worthy of special notice, however, that in no instance has 
the change affected the real nature of any one of the five 
institutions. In no instance has the change been sudden 
or rapid ; it has always been slow and gradual, much like 
the gradual growth of a tree. On all the more important 
points each of these five institutions is the same to-day as 
it was when the English colonies were first planted in the 
New World. Many people do not seem to realize this. 
They seem to think that the English people since they 
settled in America, and especially since the colonies 
became the United States, made or created these institu- 
tions. This idea is wrong. The English settlers brought 
them over from England when the colonies were first 
settled. These institutions, in one form or another, have 
always existed in all nations, but the particular forms or 
kinds brought over from England had been gradually 
developed by the English people, during a period of more 
than a thousand years. In order to understand many 
things in the history of the United States, it is necessary 
to learn something about how the English people devel- 
oped their institutions, and especially is it necessary to 
learn something about how they developed the institution 
of government. It is interesting as well as valuable to 
study the institution of government in England before the 
English people settled in America. 

305. English and American Governments Compared. — 
In England, at the present time, the national government 
consists of three departments, — executive, judicial, and 



Origin of American Institutions 235 

legislative, — and it consisted of three departments when 
Columbus discovered America. As has already been 
stated, the national government in the United States con- 
sists of the same departments. In England the king is the 
head of the executive department, as is the President in 
the United States, but the king of England at the present 
time has not so much power and authority in the affairs of 
government as has the President of the United States. 
The judicial department in England is very much like the 
judicial department here. The legislative department in 
England, like the legislative department in the United 
States, consists of two houses, — the Upper House, called 
the House of Lords, and the Lower House, called the 
House of Commons. The members of the House of 
Commons are elected by the people, as is the case with 
the members of the House of Representatives of the 
United States Congress. The House of Lords is com- 
posed of members of the English nobility. Each member 
holds his position in that House because of his title, while 
the members of the United States Senate are chosen by the 
state legislatures. 

306. National and State Governments essentially English. 
From this brief outline of the national government of 
England it becomes plain that the general plan of the 
government of the United States, and of the government 
of each state, was brought over from England by English- 
men when they founded the colonies. The same is true in 
many respects in regard to our local government. The 
county and township, in one form or another, have existed 
in England for more than a thousand years. In fact, the 
germs or beginnings of the county and township, and of 
many other forms of our government, existed among the 
wild Teuton tribes in the vast forests of Germany before 



236 Origin of American Institutions 

three of them — Jutes, Angles, and Saxons — conquered 
England and became Englishmen. Our ancestors, there- 
fore, before they were called Englishmen, began to develop 
in the forests of Germany the forms of government which 
we enjoy to-day. 

307. The English Struggle for Liberty, 1066-1649. — The 
legislative department of the English government had a 
hard struggle with the king, or executive department. 
Its powers were not well defined and firmly established 
until after the American Revolution. In fact, the Revo- 
lution was one of the causes that brought about the com- 
plete victory of the English Parliament, as the English 
legislative department is called. In this small book the 
growth of the English Parliament cannot be discussed to 
any great extent ; but as the history of this growth is also 
a part of the history of our national and state legislatures, 
there are a few things concerning it that should be noted, 
at least briefly. In 1066 the Normans, from Normandy in 
France, conquered England. Their leader, William, the 
Duke of Normandy, became king of England. Before 
the Normans conquered England, the earls and bishops 
and other great men of the kingdom met from time to 
time and made the laws for the nation. When William 
became king, he did away with the meetings of these men, 
except for the purpose of paying him homage. He made 
all the laws himself, and his officers and soldiers enforced 
them. He levied taxes, and imprisoned and executed men 
without due process of law. His power was supreme over 
all England, and the people had nothing whatever to say 
about the government. William used his power for the 
welfare of the English people, but some of his children 
and descendants, who afterwards ruled England, were 
very unjust and oppressive. Before the reign of William I, 



Origin of American Institutions 237 



the English people had never been under despotic rule, 
and they were not willing that their king should have such 
power. They began 
to demand the right to 
make the laws which 
they must obey. The 
struggle was a long 
one, and resulted in a 
number of wars. In 
1649, as has already 
been stated, King 
Charles I was be- 
headed because he 
tried to overthrow 
the rights which the 
people had secured. 
The English people 
were not completely 
successful in their 
contest for self-gov- 
ernment until within the last hundred years ; but they had 
secured a great many rights and powers in the government 
by the time Virginia and Massachusetts were founded. 
The people of no other nation in modern times had secured 
so many civil and political rights as the people of England 
enjoyed at that time. 

308. Five Great English Rights ; Taxation. — In a cer- 
tain sense it may be said that the long struggle for civil 
and political liberty in England began about eight hundred 
and forty years ago (1066), when William I became king 
of England. One of the main things for which the Eng- 
lish people contended throughout all this long struggle 
was the right to vote the taxes which they were to pay. 




King Charles I 



238 Origin of American Institutions 

They did not care so much about the taxes or duties which 
were levied on the commerce between England and other 
nations, but they wished to control all home or internal 
taxes. They wished to vote these taxes through a legisla- 
ture or parliament which represented them. 

309. Habeas Corpus. — The people also insisted that a law 
should always exist that would prevent the king or any offi- 
cer in time of peace from arresting any one and keeping 
him in jail, unless the reasons for his arrest were stated and 
he had been proven guilty of the charges made against him, 
by due process of law — that is, by a regular trial before 
the proper court or jury. The law which gives a man the 
right when arrested to have the reasons for his arrest 
stated, and the right to be brought before the proper court 
or judge and tried on the charges made, is called Habeas 
Corpus. This is a very important law, because when it 
does not exist officers can arrest any one, no matter if he 
be innocent and an excellent man, and keep him in jail 
the rest of his life. This is exactly what some of the 
English kings did, and this is why the English people were 
determined to secure this right by law. 

310. Trial by Jury. — The Right of Trial by Jury is 
another right which the people were determined to pos- 
sess. This is a very important right, and it was devel- 
oped slowly. Under this right, a man who has been 
arrested or accused of violating a law may insist on being 
tried by a jury of his fellow-citizens, usually twelve in 
number. Those who know anything about the matter of 
which the man is accused must tell it on oath to this 
jury. If the jury, after listening to all the evidence, de- 
cides that the man is guilty, he must be punished ; if it 
decides that he is not guilty, the charge against him must be 
dismissed, and if he has been arrested, he must be set free. 



Origin of American Institutions 239 

311. General Warrants. — The people also wished a law 
to exist that would make it impossible for an officer in 
times of peace to secure from the king, or from any other 
department or officer of the government, a general warrant 
or order of any kind that would give him the right to search 
any man's private house. They were willing that a special 
warrant, called a search warrant, might be issued that 
would give an officer the right to search a special house, 
provided the warrant named the house and stated the 
object of the search. This was a very important law, be- 
cause, in the absence of such a law, officers can go through 
the country and search all private houses, seize property, 
and in other ways make the people a great deal of trouble. 

312. Quartering of Soldiers. — - The people were also 
determined to prevent soldiers from being quartered on 
them in times of peace. Quartering soldiers on a man 
means compelling him to take soldiers into* his house in 
times of peace and to keep them. The English kings 
often did this, and it naturally worked a great hardship on 
the people. 

313. Summary. — The five rights outlined in the last 
paragraph are the ones which the English people were 
especially determined to secure. These rights protect the 
lives, the property, and the homes of the people. Stated 
in a clearer and more concise form, these five rights are as 
follows : — 

(a) The Right of Taxation. This means the right of the 
people to determine matters of taxation by a body 
of men who represent them. This right is some- 
times referred to as " No Taxation without Repre- 
sentation." 

(£) The Right of Habeas Corpus. This means the right 
of a person to be free from arrest and imprison- 



240 Origin of American Institutions 

ment in times of peace, unless he be charged with a 
specific crime and found guilty within a reasonable 
time by the proper court or jury. 

(c) The Right of Trial by Jury. This means that when a 

man has been arrested, or accused of violating the 
law, he may demand that a jury of his fellow-men 
shall decide whether he is or is not guilty. 

(d) The Right of Privacy in the Home. This means the 

right of a person not to have his home searched by 
an officer in time of peace unless that officer has a 
written order from the proper department of govern- 
ment, which names or specifies his house, and states 
the object for which the search is to be made. 

(e) The Right of Refusing to Quarter Soldiers. This 

means that a person in time of peace may refuse to 

keep soldiers in his house, or to provide food and 

lodging for them. 

314. How Englishmen Secured their Rights ; Magna 

Charta. — The English people had to go through a long 

and hard struggle in order 
to secure these rights. 
When a despotic king be- 
came very oppressive and 
unjust, the people would 
take up arms and compel 
him to respect their rights 
and to grant them more. 
In 121 5 the great barons of 
England made war on King 
John and compelled him to 
sign a paper in which he 
promised to be just in his 
kingJohn government, and that the 




Origin of American Institutions 241 



English people should forever enjoy many of the rights 
for which they had been contending. This paper, or 
document, which John signed is called Magna Charta, 
which means the Great Charter of English liberties. 

315. Struggle between King and Parliament. — King 
John and many of the kings who followed him did not 







Facsimile of Portion of Magna Charta 

carry out the promises contained in the Great Charter, 
and so the struggle went on from century to century, the 
disputes often resulting in war between the people and 
the king. During all this time the rights of the people 
were becoming more and more firmly established. By 
1400 Parliament, that is, the national legislature or law- 
making body of England, had become established, and 
was divided into the House of Lords and the House of 
Commons. Many of the- kings were still opposed to Par- 

R 



242 Origin of American Institutions 



liament, and in many ways would govern the people with- 
out its consent and against its wishes, but it was becoming 
stronger and stronger. By 1600 Parliament had become 
still more powerful, but King James I compelled it to ad- 
journ, and tried to rule without it. He could not levy 
taxes, however, because the right of Parliament to do this 
had become firmly established. 

316. Petition of Right: English Civil War, 1641-1649. 
— When Charles I became king in 1625, he attempted 

to raise money 
without the con- 
sent of Parlia- 
ment, but in 
1628 it forced 
him to sign a 
paper called the 
Petition of 
Right. In many 
respects this 
was like the 
Great Charter 
which King 
John was forced 
to sign in 12 15. By the Petition of Right, Charles prom- 
ised that the people should enjoy the rights stated in it and 
those granted in the Great Charter. When Parliament 
adjourned, however, he began to violate his promises and 
to raise money without its consent. The people made war 
against him, and in 1649 he was beheaded. Parliament 
then ruled England without a king for ten years, at the 
end of which time Charles's son became king. 

317. Victory of the People. — Other kings tried to deprive 
the people of their rights, but the authority of Parliament 




Houses of Parliament 



Origin of American Institutions 243 

was firmly established after the American Revolution. 
Although many Englishmen could not vote for the members 
of Parliament at that time, this legislative body represented 
the people. Thus after a struggle of more than seven 
hundred years the English people had firmly established 
many rights, chief among which were the rights to tax 
themselves and make the laws ; the right of Habeas 
Corpus ; the right of privacy in their homes ; the right 
not to have soldiers quartered in their homes ; and the 
right of trial by jury. 

318. American Colonists still Englishmen. — When the 
English people came over from England and founded 
the English colonies in America, they brought with them 
their ideas of what the nature of the five institutions should 
be. They came from a land where their ancestors for cen- 
turies had worked and fought and died in order to secure 
civil and political rights. English history was their history, 
and, like the Englishmen who remained in England, they 
loved the important rights which Englishmen had secured. 
If necessary, they were willing to die to preserve them. As 
has already been seen, each colony had a legislature which 
made the laws and levied all its home or internal taxes. 

319. Parliament and Colonial Legislatures Compared. — 
There was one very important difference between the 
legislatures in the colonies and the Parliament of Eng- 
land. The members of the House of Commons were 
elected by the people, but very few of the English people 
had the right to vote. The members were not elected by 
the township or county. They represented cities and 
districts, or boroughs, and a member was not required to 
live in a city or borough in order to represent it. He 
might live in one end of England and represent in the 
House of Commons a city in the other end. In the colo- 



244 Origin of American Institutions 

nies a member of the lower branch of the legislature repre- 
sented a county, township, or district, and it was necessary 
for him to live in the county, township, or district that 
he represented. Every man who owned a small amount 
of property could vote for members of the lower branch of 
the legislature. The legislatures in the colonies, therefore, 
were much more democratic than was the Parliament of 
England. 

320. Growth of Popular Liberty in the Colonies. — The 
English people in the colonies, therefore, were not only 
enjoying the rights which they brought with them from 
England, but were rapidly extending them and securing 
others, and were establishing all these rights more firmly 
than were the Englishmen who remained in England. 
This was due to the fact that they lived far from England 
and the attention and influence of the king, and under 
new conditions in a new and wild country that naturally 
developed independence in character and action. It was 
also due to the fact that most of those who founded the 
colonies were men of strong character and determined 
purpose, for usually it was only men of this character who 
were willing to leave their old homes and face the hard- 
ships of the New World. 



QUESTIONS AND TOPICS 

ORIGIN OF AMERICAN INSTITUTIONS 

Questions for Class Recitations 

Explain to what extent the five institutions as they exist in the 
United States to-day are related to the form and condition of those 
institutions as they existed in the colonies. What has caused the 
change in these institutions since colonial times? From where did the 



Questions and Topics 245 

particular forms or kinds of these institutions as they existed in the colo- 
nies come ? For about how long were they being developed before they 
were brought to America? 

Explain quite fully the relation of government in England to govern- 
ment in the United States. Give a brief statement of the long struggle 
between the English king and the English people over the question of 
English rights. Explain fully what is meant by the Right of Taxation. 
Why are the people so anxious to have this right? Explain fully what 
is meant by the Right of Habeas Corpus. Why is this right so valua- 
ble? Explain fully what is meant by the Right of Trial by Jury. Why 
is this a very valuable right? Explain fully what is meant by the Right 
of Privacy in the Home. Why are the people anxious to have this 
right? Explain fully what is meant by the Right of refusing to Quarter 
Soldiers. Why is this a valuable right? 

What is the Magna Charta? How did the English people secure it? 
What did the English people do when a king disobeyed this charter, 
and tried to take away their rights? What is the English Parliament? 
What part of the national government of the United States corresponds 
to Parliament? When did Parliament first become fairly well estab- 
lished? How did most of the English kings treat Parliament? Dis- 
cuss the struggle between Parliament and James I. How did America 
assist in helping firmly to establish the authority of Parliament? How 
were English rights and institutions transferred to America? What 
was the feeling of the colonists toward England and English rights and 
institutions? What caused the five institutions, and especially the insti- 
tution of government, to become somewhat changed in the colonies? 
What was the nature of this change in the institution of government ? 



Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the relation of government in England to government in the 
United States. Discuss the five more important English rights, explain- 
ing the nature and value of each. Discuss the struggle between the 
English people and their kings over these five important rights. Dis- 
cuss the transfer of English rights and institutions to America. 



THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 



CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS 

I. Causes of the Revolution 

1. King George's Opposition to Popular Government 

2. General Cause : Attempts to overthrow the Right of Taxation 

3. English Control of Colonial Commerce 
(a) Navigation Acts 

(&) Writs of Assistance 

4. Taxation without Representation 

(a) The Stamp Act and the Stamp Act Congress 

(b) The Declaratory Act and the Townshend Acts 

(c) The Boston Massacre 

(d) The Tea Tax 

5. The Repressive or Intolerable Acts 
II. The Beginnings of the Revolution 

1. Growth of Colonial Union 

(a) Committees of Correspondence 
(6) The First Continental Congress 

2. Lexington and Concord 

3. The Second Continental Congress 

4. The Battle of Bunker Hill 

5. The Siege and Capture of Boston 

6. The Declaration of Independence 

7. Comparison of Resources of England and America 

CAMPAIGNS 

I. Nature and Object of the Three Campaigns planned by the British 
II. The Campaign to separate New England from the Other States, 
and the Campaign against Philadelphia and the Middle States 

1 . Capture of New York City 

2. Retreat across New Jersey and Capture of Trenton 

3. Operations in Canada and in Northern New York 

246 



Causes and Beginnings 247 

4. The Capture of Philadelphia 

5. The Surrender of Burgoyne 

6. Some Results of Burgoyne's Surrender 

7. Other Events of the War in the New England and Middle 

States 

III. The Campaign against the Southern States 

1. The Surrender of Savannah and Charleston 

2. The Defeat of Gates at Camden 

3. Green's Southern Campaign 

IV. The Closing Events of the War 

1. The Surrender of Cornwallis 

2. Some Results of the Surrender at Yorktown 



248 The American Revolution 



CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS 

321. King George's Opposition to Popular Government. — 

George III was king of England from 1760 to 1820. He 
became king three years before the treaty of peace was 
signed that ended the French and Indian War and that 
gave to England all of Canada. King George was 
determined actually to rule England and her colonies, 
and not merely to reign and be called king. He did not 
believe in popular government, and was determined that 
his authority should be supreme. It must be said that 
he wished to rule in the interests of his people, but he 
was not willing that they should rule themselves. In 
order to carry out his plans successfully, he saw that it 
would be necessary to overcome most unfavorable condi- 
tions. He could not make laws, because the principle had 
become firmly established that no power in England, except 
Parliament, could do that. 

322. The King gains Control of Parliament ; the North 
Ministry. — In order really to govern England and her 
colonies, it was therefore necessary for him, in some way 
or another, to get control of Parliament ; and this he pro- 
ceeded to do. The man who represents the majority 
in the House of Commons, and really directs the legis- 
lation of Parliament and is the real head of the Eng- 
lish government, is called the Prime Minister. The king 
has the right to select the Prime Minister, but this officer 
cannot hold his position unless he has the support of the 
majority of the members of Parliament, and especially of 
the majority in the House of Commons. Ever since he had 
become king, George had put forth every effort to secure 
a Parliament that would do as he desired, and that would 
support any Prime Minister which he might appoint. By 



Causes and Beginnings 249 

bribery at election, and by granting favors to members of 
Parliament, he gradually succeeded in doing this. By 
1770 he had gained complete control of Parliament, and 
at that date appointed Lord North Prime Minister. Lord 
North was a man who would carry out his wishes. King 
George was now in a position to rule as well as reign, pro- 
vided his subjects in England and in America were will- 
ing to submit to his rule. It soon became plain that they 
were not. The Americans took up arms in defense of the 
ancient liberties of Englishmen. The result was the com- 
plete defeat of the king and his ideas of government. 
Never since then has a king of England attempted to rule 
as well as reign. 

323. General Cause of Revolution ; Attempt to Overthrow 
Right of Taxation. — As indicated above, the American 
Revolution was caused by the attempt of King George and 
his Parliament to take away from the Americans the rights 
of Englishmen. While King George has been justly held 
responsible for the Revolution, he did not begin the policy 
that finally drove the colonies into rebellion. The French 
and Indian War had cost England a large amount of money. 
After this war it became necessary to maintain soldiers in 
Canada and among the Indians. This meant a constant ex- 
pense to the English government. The French and Indian 
War was of great value to the colonies as well as to Eng- 
land, and the English soldiers maintained in Canada after 
the war were also of great value to the colonies. Parlia- 
ment very naturally thought that the Americans should bear 
part of the expense. It was certainly right and just for the 
colonies to do this. Parliament, however, should have asked 
the colonies to raise their share of the money by taxing 
themselves ; but instead of doing this it proceeded to tax the 
colonies itself by levying a home, or internal, tax on them. 



250 The American Revolution 

324. Representation of the Colonists in Parliament. — The 

Americans considered this a violation of the right of taxa- 
tion. They claimed that Parliament had no right to tax 
them, because they were not represented in that body. But 
many Englishmen insisted that the Americans were repre- 
sented in Parliament fully as much as many people in 
England were. There was much truth in this, because 
more than half the men in England could not vote for any 
member of Parliament, and even some large cities had no 
representative in that body. The Americans, however, 
were not accustomed to this kind of representation. In 
each colony every man who had a small amount of prop- 
erty could vote for members of the legislature. The legis- 
latures of the colonies were the only bodies in which the 
Americans ever claimed to be represented. They never 
even desired to send a representative to Parliament. 
When all the conditions in the colonies are considered, 
there can be no question but that the Americans were 
right when they said that they were not represented in 
Parliament. 

325. English Support for the American Cause; King 
George's Purpose. — The greatest statesmen in England 
agreed with them, and the direct taxes on the Americans 
would have been removed, and no further attempts to tax 
them would have been made, had it not been for the atti- 
tude of King George. While he did not suggest these 
taxes in the first place, he thought this a good opportunity 
to destroy popular government in America. If he could 
succeed in taxing the Americans without their consent, he 
thought that he might be better able to destroy the right of 
taxation in England, and to carry out there his other ideas 
of government. At first he succeeded in deceiving most of 
the people of England, and secured a majority of Parlia- 



Causes and Beginnings 251 

merit; but the greatest statesmen in England understood 
his object, strongly opposed his policy, and defended 
the Americans throughout the Revolution. 

326. Navigation Acts. — The first attempt to overthrow- 
English rights in the colonies after George became king 
was in 1761. The English government had passed trade 
laws known as Navigation Acts. From 1650 to 1770 about 
twenty-five of these laws were passed. The object of the 
Navigation Acts was to give the people of England control 
of the commerce of both England and her colonies. One 
of these laws provided that no goods of any kind which 
were raised or produced in Asia, Africa, or the New 
World could be shipped into England or her colonies 
except in English ships or in ships owned by her colo- 
nists. Another one of these laws levied a very high tax 
or duty on all goods shipped into the colonies from any 
country except England. This law levied such a high 
duty that if the people in the colonies had obeyed it, 
they would have been compelled to buy nearly all their 
supplies in England except those produced at home. 
The Americans imported a large amount of goods from 
the West Indies. This law meant that all these goods 
must first be shipped across the ocean to England, or 
to some English port, and then back across the ocean 
again to the colonies. These and other laws regulating 
commerce were passed by Parliament, at the request of 
English merchants who acted as though the colonies 
existed for the purpose of making them richer. As a 
matter of fact, these laws did not do the English mer- 
chants much good, because the Americans did not obey 
them. They smuggled goods into the colonies under the 
very noses of the revenue officers, and assisted the mer- 
chants of other nations to do the same thing. While the 



252 The American Revolution 

Navigation Acts annoyed the Americans, they admitted 
that Parliament had the right to regulate the commerce 
of the Empire. But if these laws had been strictly en- 
forced, there would very likely have been trouble long 
before the Revolution. 

327. Writs of Assistance. — In 1761 the English govern- 
ment decided to enforce the Navigation Acts. In order to 
do this it was necessary for the revenue officers to enter 
private houses and search for smuggled goods. But an 
officer in order to enter a private house for this purpose 
must have a warrant of some kind from a court or similar 
body. A revenue officer at Boston applied to the Supe- 
rior Court for a general warrant, which was called Writ of 
Assistance. To issue a general warrant, which would per- 
mit an officer to enter anybody's house and search it, 
violated a right which, as has already been stated, the Eng- 
lish people prized very highly. They were willing that 
a special warrant, which named the house to be searched 
and the goods to be secured, might be issued, but they 
were strongly opposed to general warrants. James Otis 
went before the Superior Court at Boston and argued that 
the general warrant, or Writ of Assistance, should not be 
issued to the revenue officer, because to do so would vio- 
late English rights and English liberties. But as a law of 
Parliament gave the court the right to issue these Writs 
of Assistance, they were issued. Although it seems that 
these general warrants were never used by the officers, the 
Americans contended that the mere issuing of them had 
violated one of their sacred rights, and this tended to 
create in the colonies a strong feeling against the Navi- 
gation Acts. 

The object of the strict enforcement of the Navigation 
Acts after 1760 was to make the colonies of more value to 



Causes and Beginnings 253 

English merchants and to the business interests of Eng- 
land. In addition to the benefit which English merchants 
would receive from the strict enforcement of these acts, 
Parliament, as has already been stated, decided to have the 
colonies pay a part of the expense necessary to maintain 
soldiers in Canada and in the other territory just secured 
from France. 

328. The Stamp Act. — Instead of asking the colonies to 
raise their share by taxing themselves, Parliament, in 1765, 
levied a home tax in each of the thirteen colonies. This tax 
is known as the Stamp Act, because it required that legal 
papers and documents must be stamped, and that the 
person who had this done must pay a certain amount for 
each paper stamped. Different kinds of documents were 
stamped in different ways, and the amount charged varied. 
This was the first attempt of the English government to 
levy a home tax in the colonies. It was a direct violation 
of the right of taxation, and this violation was of a very 
dangerous nature. If Parliament could levy a tax in the 
colonies for the purpose of raising money to be used in 
America, it also had the right to levy a tax in the colonies 
for the purpose of raising money to be used in England. 
The Americans saw at once, and saw clearly, the effect 
of the Stamp Act on the great principle of the right of 
taxation. 

329. Strong Opposition in America ; the Stamp Act Con- 
gress. — The news of the passage of this act was received 
in America with deep concern and indignation. There 
at once grew up in the colonies a determination to pre- 
vent the Stamp Act from going into effect. The ances- 
tors of the Americans had often made war on the king 
to establish the great principle that there should be no 
taxation without representation, and the Americans were 



254 The American Revolution 

now preparing to do the same thing. The legislature of 
Virginia was the first one to take formal action. Pat- 
rick Henry introduced resolutions in the House of Bur- 
gesses, which declared that the Stamp Act was a violation 
of English liberty, and that the people of Virginia were 
not bound to obey any such law. Massachusetts was the 
next colony to take action. Its legislature invited the 
other colonies to send delegates to a congress in order that 
the colonies might agree on some plan for united action 
against the Stamp Act. Nine colonies elected delegates, and 
the four which did not were as strongly in favor of united 
action. The delegates met at New York, and this meeting 
is known as the Stamp Act Congress. This Congress 
passed resolutions which declared that Americans possessed 
all the rights of Englishmen, and that Parliament therefore 
could not tax them, because they were not represented in 
that body but in the legislatures of the colonies. The Con- 
gress addressed petitions and memorials to the king and 
to both houses of Parliament, in which these rights were 
stated and courteous requests made that they be not vio- 
lated. Meanwhile the excitement among the people had 
become greater and greater. As soon as the names of 
those who were to have charge of the stamps became 
known, the people forced them to resign. In New York 
and Boston there were riots and destruction of property. 
The Stamp Act was to go into effect November I, 1765 ; 
but when that time arrived there was not a stamp officer 
in the colonies, and therefore no one had authority to sell 
the stamps. As a result the hated Stamp Act never went 
into effect. 

330. Repeal of Stamp Act. — The strong opposition of 
the Americans was a great surprise to the English people 
and to the English government. Parliament saw that the 



Causes and Beginnings 255 

Stamp Act could not be enforced without war, and the mer- 
chants of London were requesting its repeal because it was 
injuring their trade with the colonies. A short time before 
the date set for the Stamp Act to go into effect, the king 
had appointed Rockingham Prime Minister. Rockingham 
did not approve of the Stamp Act, and did "not care to 
attempt its enforcement by the use of soldiers. He there- 
fore asked Parliament to repeal it. The debate on its 
repeal was able and fierce. William Pitt declared in the 
House of Commons that for Parliament to force the colo- 
nies to pay a home or internal tax might result in the over- 
throw of liberty in England, and that he therefore rejoiced 
that America had resisted. The result of the debate was 
the repeal of the Stamp Act. The repeal was hailed with 
great rejoicing in America. The legislature passed resolu- 
tions of thanks to the king, and the people expressed their 
feelings by bonfires and celebrations. 

331. Declaratory Act. — The Americans, however, had 
very little good reason for rejoicing. Parliament had not 
acknowledged the principle that it could not tax them. 
When the Stamp Act was repealed, another act, called 
the Declaratory Act, was passed. In this act Parliament 
stated that it had the right to legislate for the colonies on 
all questions, which meant that it claimed the right to levy 
taxes in the colonies whenever it so desired. 

332. Townshend Acts ; other Repressive Measures. — 
The very next year Parliament levied another series of 
taxes, and passed other laws which asserted its power and 
its intention to interfere with the internal affairs of the colo- 
nies. These taxes and acts are known as the Townshend 
Acts, because Townshend, who was the real leader in the 
House of Commons at this time, proposed them and secured 
their adoption. These new laws did not levy any internal 



256 The American Revolution 

taxes, as did the Stamp Act, but they levied import duties. 
They required that a duty or tax be paid on all tea, wine, 
oil, lead, glass, paper, and painters' colors which might 
be brought into the colonies from other countries. For 
more than a hundred years England had placed a tax on 
various kinds of goods brought into the colonies, and the 
Americans had never offered any very serious objections. 
But these taxes had always been levied for the pur- 
pose of enforcing the trade laws, or Navigation Acts, 
and not for the purpose of raising a revenue. The total 
amount secured from these import duties had not been 
half enough to pay the salaries of the officers who col- 
lected them. The new duties which were imposed by the 
Townshend Acts were created for the purpose of raising a 
revenue, and not merely for the purpose of enforcing 
the trade laws. Some of the money to be raised by these 
duties, or taxes, was to be used for paying the salaries of 
the royal governors and highest judges of the colonies. 
The object of this was to make these officers independ- 
ent of the Americans, so that they could better carry out 
the laws and desires of Parliament. The Townshend Acts 
did not stop merely with the question of taxes. They pro- 
vided that general search warrants, or Writs of Assist- 
ance, should be granted ; and that those who might be 
accused of violating the import tax laws could be tried 
and condemned by a court without a jury trial. When 
it passed the Townshend Acts, Parliament also passed 
one which suspended the New York legislature, because 
it had not provided for English troops which were quar- 
tered in the city of New York. Thus Parliament at one 
stroke violated the right of taxation ;- the right to be free 
from general warrants in time of peace ; the right to 
be free from quartering troops in time of peace ; and the 



Causes and Beginnings 257 

right of trial by jury. As though it were not enough 
to violate these four sacred English rights, Parliament 
a little later threatened the colonists with transportation 
to England for trial for offenses With which they might 
be charged. 

333. Unity of Action among the Colonies ; its Effect. — It 
now became evident that Parliament, under the direction of 
King George, had decided to rule the Americans without 
their consent, even if to do so required the violation of all 
the more important English rights and liberties. The 
legislature of Massachusetts sent a circular letter to the 
legislatures of the other colonies, in which it suggested 
unity of action in opposition to these illegal acts of the 
English government. The letter met with a friendly re- 
sponse from the legislatures of the other colonies, and it 
directed attention to the need for unity of action. It had 
a different effect on the king and his ministers. They 
ordered the legislature of Massachusetts dissolved because 
it had sent out the letter, and ordered other legislatures 
dissolved because they had approved of it. All these 
arbitrary acts tended to arouse the people still more. The 
merchants in the colonies refused to buy English goods, 
and as a result the commerce of England was injured to 
such an extent that the English merchants requested Par- 
liament to repeal the import duties levied by the Town- 
shend Acts. In response to this demand, Parliament, in 
1770, repealed all these taxes except a small duty on tea. 
It retained the import tax on tea in order to impress on the 
Americans the fact that it claimed the right to tax them, 
and it is worthy of notice that this was done at the express 
command of the king. 

334. The Boston Massacre. — The other parts of the 
Townshend Acts were not repealed. That one which pro- 



258 The American Revolution 

vided for the quartering of troops led to serious results in 
Boston. The people of Boston were opposed to having the 
English soldiers stationed in the town, and there naturally 
grew up an unfriendly feeling between the soldiers and the 
people. There were frequent quarrels. One evening, in 
1770, seven soldiers fired into a crowd of people, killing 
four and wounding a number of others, two of whom after- 
ward died. It is quite likely that the soldiers fired without 
orders, and because they were afraid that they would be 
either killed or injured by the people who were crowding 
upon them. This affair, which is known as the Boston 
Massacre, created a great deal of excitement. Six citizens 
had been killed, as the direct result of quartering troops in 
a city, in violation of a sacred English right. In response 
to the demand of the town meeting the two regiments of 
soldiers were removed from the town. 

335. Trial of the English Soldiers. — The seven soldiers 
who fired on the people were defended in court by John 
Adams and Josiah Quincy, both of whom were citizens 
of Boston and strong believers in American rights. The 
soldiers were tried by an American jury, which declared 
that they were not guilty of murder, although it found two 
of them guilty of manslaughter. When all the circum- 
stances are considered, this fair and just treatment of the 
accused soldiers by the people of Boston is quite remark- 
able, and indicates plainly that English ideas of law, 
justice, and liberty had found a safe home in America. 

336. Tax on Tea. — The smallness of the tax retained on 
tea, and the permission granted the East India Company 
to ship it direct to the colonies, without paying the English 
import duty, made tea cheaper in America than in England. 
The Americans were not to be induced to buy the tea, how- 
ever, because of its cheapness. They saw that the small 



Causes and Beginnings 



259 



tax was retained for the express purpose of maintaining the 
right to tax them, and it was for this very reason that they 
were determined to oppose it. As the East India Com- 
pany supposed that the Americans would gladly buy tea 
at the reduced price, they sent a large quantity to America 
in 1773. The ships sailed for Charleston, Philadelphia, 
New York, and Boston. The tea was landed at Charles- 
ton, but none of it was ever sold or used until after the 




Tab 



COMMEMORATIl 



Boston Tea Party 



Revolution began, when it was sold by the state. No one 
would receive the tea at Philadelphia and New York, so 
the ships which brought it over carried it away. 

337. Boston Tea Party. — At Boston the authorities would 
not permit the three ships containing the tea to leave the 
harbor without first unloading their cargoes, and if not 
unloaded within a certain time, the revenue officers could 
seize the tea and sell it to the highest bidder. In order to 



260 The American Revolution 

prevent it from being landed, a party of men, disguised 
as Indians, boarded the vessels after dark, cut open the tea 
chests, and threw the tea into the sea. This is known as 
the Boston Tea Party. This unlawful destruction of the 
tea gave the king and Parliament an excuse for using force 
against Boston and Massachusetts. It would have been 
better, perhaps, to have treated the tea in some such way 
as it had been treated at Charleston. 

338. Samuel Adams' Policy. — It seems that Samuel 
Adams was responsible for the Boston Tea Party. He did 
not seem to desire that the trouble between the Americans 
and England should be settled in a peaceful manner. Ac- 
cording to Fiske, and his own statement, Adams began 
to plan to bring about the Revolution and the independ- 
ence of the colonies as far back as 1768. But he was a 
shrewd, able man, and knew that the Americans did not 
desire separation from England at that time, but simply 
wished to maintain their rights as Englishmen. The illegal 
and unwise acts of the king and Parliament roused the 
people more and more, and when the tea ships sailed for 
America, Adams thought the time had come to commit 
some act that would cause England to use force. He be- 
lieved that such action on the part of England would unite 
the colonies in open opposition. This was the main reason 
why he directed and controlled the Boston town meetings 
in such a way as to secure the unlawful destruction of 
the tea. 

339. The Repressive or Intolerable Acts. — The man- 
ner in which the Americans had received the tea made 
it plain that Parliament could not levy and collect a tax 
in the colonies unless it did so by force. The action 
of the Boston Tea Party made it necessary for the Eng- 
lish government to punish Boston in some way, or else 



Causes and Beginnings 261 

admit that it had no right to tax the colonies, or to inter- 
fere with their home affairs. Parliament, under Lord 
North as Prime Minister, determined to maintain its posi- 
tion and to punish Massachusetts. In 1774 it passed a 
series of four acts, which are known in the United States 
as the Repressive or Intolerable Acts. At the same time, 
Parliament passed another act, which placed the territory 
north of the Ohio, and between the Mississippi River and 
the Alleghany Mountains, under the military government 
of Canada. The last act was not passed, because of the 
trouble between the colonies and England ; but it tended 
to provoke the Americans, because Virginia, Connecticut, 
and Massachusetts claimed some of this territory, and 
because a military government would interfere with the 
westward growth of the colonies. The first of the four 
acts which were passed for the punishment of Massachu- 
setts is known as the Boston Port Bill. It provided that 
no ships should enter or leave the port of Boston until 
that town had paid the East India Company for the tea 
which had been destroyed at the Boston Tea Party. The 
second act annulled the charter of Massachusetts and really 
placed the government of that colony in the hands of the 
governor, who was appointed by the king. This swept 
away in Massachusetts nearly all the more important Eng- 
lish rights and liberties. The third act provided that an 
officer or soldier of the English government, when charged 
with a crime, should be tried outside of Massachusetts. 
This was passed, because it was claimed he would not 
receive a fair trial in Massachusetts; but there was no 
good reason for believing that any one so charged would 
not receive fair and just treatment in the courts of the 
colony. The fourth act made it legal to quarter troops 
anywhere in Massachusetts. 



202 



The American Revolution 



In providing the severe punishment contained in the four 
Repressive Acts, the king and Parliament hoped to restrict 
the trouble as much as possible to Massachusetts, and they 
seemed really to believe that the other colonies would not 
assist her. The other colonies saw clearly, however, that 
the successful overthrow of popular government in Massa- 
chusetts would mean, sooner or later, the overthrow of their 
own rights and liberties, and they naturally concluded that 
an attack on Massachusetts was an attack on all the Amer- 
ican colonies. They therefore decided to assist Massa- 
chusetts, and this decision naturally led to unity of action. 

340. Growth of Colonial Union. — By far the strongest 
force in gradually bringing the colonies together and caus- 
ing them to act in unison for their common protection was 
the unwise policy of the English government. The fre- 
quent attempts of the king and Parliament to overthrow 
the most sacred English rights alarmed the thinking men 
in all the colonies, and forced them to unite for their own 
defense. The Stamp Act caused the colonies to send 
delegates to the Stamp Act Congress in 1765, and this 
taught them how to unite for common action. The re- 
sistance to the Townshend Acts tended still further to 
unite the colonies. The circular letter that the legislature 
of Massachusetts sent to the other colonies, and in which 
she suggested union of action in opposition to these Acts, 
had a strong effect in creating a sentiment of union. The 
opposition of the king and Parliament to this letter only 
increased its effect. The agreements called Non-Impor- 
tation Agreements, which the merchants of the different 
colonies made, and in which they agreed not to import any 
goods from England until the Townshend Acts were re- 
pealed, also taught union of action. Another thing which 
created a desire for closer relations was the attempt of the 



Causes and Beginnings 263 

king and Parliament to take Americans to England for 
trial. About a hundred years before England had a col- 
ony, Parliament passed a law which provided for the trial 
and punishment in England of any English subject who 
had committed a crime outside of England. Although 
this law had been almost forgotten even in England, Par- 
liament in 1768 tried to apply it to the colonies in order 
to bring to England those Americans who might be ac- 
cused of treason. 

341. Affair of the Gaspee. — In 1772 another attempt was 
made to put this law into effect. The English government 
had stationed a war vessel, called the Gaspee, in Narra- 
gansett Bay, to enforce the Navigation Acts. While chas- 
ing a colonial vessel, the Gaspee ran ashore and could not 
get back into the water at once. Now the captain of the 
Gaspee had tried to enforce the Navigation Laws strictly, 
and with a reckless disregard for the rights of innocent 
people. Because of this, the merchants and people of 
Providence, Rhode Island, disliked him and his vessel. 
As a result of this strong feeling, men from Providence 
boarded the Gaspee one night and burned it. The Eng- 
lish government at once sent over a Commission of Inquiry, 
with orders to have those who assisted in the burning of 
the vessel arrested and brought to England for trial. 

342. Attempts to Transport Americans for Trial. — While 
no American was ever taken to England for trial, these 
attempts to do so were direct attacks on the very basis of 
freedom and popular government. They were severely 
condemned in the colonies, and were received with pro- 
found concern by the ablest Americans. The Virginians 
looked on these attempts to transport Americans to Eng- 
land for trial with special concern and suspicion. The news 
of the first attempt reached Virginia in 1769, and it was at 



264 The American Revolution 

once strongly condemned by the leaders of that colony. In 
writing to a friend regarding the effect of this principle on 
freedom, Washington said, " No man should hesitate a 
moment to use arms in defense of so valuable a blessing." 
When the House of Burgesses met, it passed a series of 
four resolutions in which it was stated that the people of 
the different colonies had a right to unite in a petition to 
the king or Parliament, and that to send any American 
to England for trial was " highly derogatory of the rights of 
British subjects." The House of Burgesses requested the 
legislatures of the other colonies to approve these resolu- 
tions, and as a rule they did so. Because it had asked the 
other colonies to join it in this protest against the violation 
of English rights, the governor dissolved the House of 
Burgesses. 

343. Colonial Committees of Correspondence. — The legis- 
lature was again in session when the news reached Virginia 
in 1773 that those who had assisted in burning the Gaspee 
were to be arrested and taken to England for trial. This 
second attempt of the king and Parliament to destroy the 
very basis of freedom caused the Burgesses to decide not 
merely to pass resolutions, but to have all the colonies unite 
in the defense of English liberties. They appointed a per- 
manent Committee of Correspondence. This committee 
was to make a special investigation of the Gaspee affair and 
to " maintain a correspondence with our sister colonies." 
The appointing of this committee was the first provision 
which any of the colonies had made for a permanent body 
whose duty it was to discuss plans of action with the other 
colonies, and to report on the general welfare of all. 
This committee is called " Colonial Committee of Corre- 
spondence." Without much delay Massachusetts, Rhode 
Island, Connecticut, New Hampshire, and South Carolina 



Causes and Beginnings 265 

appointed similar committees, and within a year a com- 
mittee of this kind had been appointed in each of the 
colonies. This completed the necessary arrangements for 
a colonial union. These committees could easily arrange 
for a meeting or congress in which all the colonies would 
be represented, and through which they could act as one. 
In the course of the next few months this was what 
actually happened. 

344. Colonial Support of Massachusetts. — When Par- 
liament, in April, 1774, passed the four acts for the pun- 
ishment of Massachusetts, it did what was necessary to 
cause the growth of union to advance from Committees of 
Correspondence to a Congress in which all the colonies 
would be represented. As soon as it became known in 
America that these acts had been passed, the people of 
the different colonies began to promise Massachusetts their 
support. They considered an attack on Massachusetts an 
attack on all the colonies. Washington said that if necessary 
he would raise a thousand men, support them at his own 
expense, " and march at their head for the relief of Boston." 
The House of Burgesses passed a resolution declaring that 
June 1, the day on which the Boston Port Bill was to go 
into effect, should be kept as a day of fasting and prayer. 
The governor at once dissolved the House of Burgesses as 
a legislature, but it continued to meet in another hall 
and declared by resolution that " an attack on one 
colony was an attack upon all British America." It 
instructed its Committee of Correspondence to recom- 
mend to the similar committees in the other colonies 
that a congress of delegates from all the colonies be 
held. The other colonies agreed to this plan, and Mas- 
sachusetts was asked to name the time and place for 
holding the congress. On the 17th of June, Massachusetts 



266 The American Revolution 

appointed five delegates to this Congress, and selected the 
i st of September and Philadelphia as the time and place 
of meeting. The royal governor of Georgia succeeded 
in preventing that colony from selecting delegates, but all 
the other colonies were represented. 

345. Meeting of the First Continental Congress. — This 
Congress was in session from September 5 to October 26, 
1774. It consisted of fifty-five delegates, and among them 
were the ablest men in all the colonies. Washington, 
Henry, Lee, and Randolph came from Virginia; Samuel 
Adams and John Adams from Massachusetts ; John Jay 
from New York ; Judge Hopkins from Rhode Island ; 
Roger Sherman from Connecticut; and Rutledge from 
South Carolina. These men did not meet for the purpose 
of doing anything that would cause the colonies to sepa- 
rate from England. With the exception of Samuel Adams, 
there was probably not a member of this Congress who 
desired that the colonies should become independent of 
England. They had met for the purpose of defending 
their rights. They were willing to take up arms and fight 
for English freedom as their ancestors in England had 
many times done; but they were not willing to take up 
arms for the purpose of becoming free from England. Her 
history was their history, and they loved her and her history 
too well for that. 

346. Action taken by First Continental Congress. — The 
Congress drew up and adopted a statement or declaration 
of the rights of the colonies. This statement claimed 
merely that Americans (Englishmen in America) were 
entitled to enjoy the same rights as Englishmen in Eng- 
land. Parliament was asked to repeal all laws which 
interfered with these rights. This Congress also pre- 
pared and sent addresses to the king and to the people 



Causes and Beginnings 



267 



of England and British America. In order better to 
prevent the importation or use of English goods in 
the colonies, the Congress 
recommended that each 
county or town should 
appoint a committee whose 
duty it should be to dis- 
courage the use of Eng- 
lish goods, and to publish 
the names of all those who 
used them. The local com- 
mittees of each colony 
were to report to the Co- 
lonial Committee of Corre- 
spondence of that colony. 
Samuel Adams, very 
likely, recommended this 
local committee system, 
for he had established it in 
Massachusetts four or five 
months before Virginia had appointed the first Colonial 
Committee of Correspondence. After completing this 
work and providing for the meeting of another Congress 
on the 10th of May, 1775, the First Continental Congress 
adjourned. The peaceful attitude of the members of this 
First Congress is indicated plainly by the fact that the 
Second Congress was not to meet if Parliament, before 
that time, should decide to respect the rights of the 
colonies, and repeal those Acts which tended to overthrow 
these rights. But stirring events were to happen before 
the meeting of the Second Congress. 

347. General Gage's Arrival in Boston, 1774; Conditions 
in the City. — As has already been stated, one of the Acts 




Samuel Adams 



268 



The American Revolution 



for the punishment of Massachusetts annulled her charter 
and practically placed the government in the hands of the 
royal governor. General Gage was appointed military gov- 
ernor under this new law, and he reached Boston in 
May. 1774, with additional soldiers. In accordance with 
the Boston Port Bill, no vessels were permitted to enter 



JVIAPOE 
BOSTON AND VICINITY 




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■;■"■•■'■■ ""( ■ ^<H*V' C>N /^- 

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or leave Boston harbor. This caused considerable suffering 
among the poor people of the city. In order to be safe 
from any attack, Gage fortified Boston Neck, which was 
the only approach to the city. But although Gage occupied 
Boston, he could not enforce the new government. The 
people of Massachusetts maintained that Parliament had 
no legal power to annul the charter of the colony, and 
that therefore the government under Gage was illegal. 



Causes and Beginnings 269 

348. Opposition to Gage's Government. — The representa- 
tives of the people met and appointed a receiver general, 
and the public taxes were paid to him instead of to the 
treasurer appointed by Gage. A Committee of Safety was 
appointed, which, with the assistance of the local town 
committees, carried on the government of the colony. In 
all parts of Massachusetts men began to drill and to collect 
powder, guns, and other military stores. Some of the men 
in each town and village were to be ready to leave home 
and to begin fighting at any minute, and they were there- 
fore called minutemen. Gage knew all about these prepara- 
tions, but he could not prevent them, and the people gave 
him no excuse for beginning war. Samuel Adams and 
the other New England leaders believed that in order to 
be sure of the assistance of the other colonies, the British 
must fire the first shot. While the people of Massachu- 
setts were determined to defend their rights, they quietly 
submitted to the military occupation of Boston for almost 
a year, in order to secure united action by all the colonies 
when the conflict should begin. Samuel Adams deserves 
much of the credit for this. He was a shrewd and able 
politician, and for more than five years had been doing his 
best to get England and the colonies into war. But he 
was doing this because he thought it was best for the 
colonies to become an independent nation. He was among 
the very few Americans who, before 1775, desired to see 
the colonies become free from England. He used some 
of the methods of the politician, but his actions were dic- 
tated by high motives of patriotism and love of country. 
Gage was no match for him. 

349. Battle of Lexington ; Paul Revere's Ride. — While 
the people of Massachusetts were preparing for war, 
Adams, Hancock, W T arren, and the other leaders of the 



270 



The American Revolution 



colony were determined that England should actually be- 
gin it. In April, 1775, almost one year after Gage arrived 
in Boston, they were at last successful. Gage knew that 
the Americans had been collecting powder and other war 
supplies at the town of Concord, which was about twenty 
miles from Boston. He also knew that Adams and Han- 
cock were stopping at Lexington for a few days, and that 
they were then going on to Philadelphia to attend the meet- 
ing of the Second Continental Congress. Some time before. 









jML 


ri HH 





Battle of Lexington 



Gage had received strict orders to arrest both Adams and 
Hancock, and to send them to England for trial. Lexington 
is between Boston and Concord, so Gage sent out eight 
hundred soldiers with orders t© capture Adams and Han- 
cock, and then to push on to Concord and destroy the mili- 
tary stores which had been collected there. In order that 
the Americans might not learn of these plans, the eight 
hundred British regulars left Boston very quietly about 
ten o'clock in the evening of April 18. But every move- 
ment of the British in Boston was being watched so closely 



Causes and Beginnings 271 

that these soldiers had scarcely begun their march when 
messengers began riding out into the country and rousing 
the people from their sleep with the news. Paul Revere 
was one of these messengers, whose ride Longfellow has 
described in a well-known poem. Revere reached Lex- 
ington about midnight, after having aroused the people 
along the road over which he came. By this time messen- 
gers were riding over the country in every direction. Re- 
vere rode up to the home in which Samuel Adams and 
Hancock were sleeping, and told them that the regulars 
were coming. He then rode on to Concord, spreading the 
news on the way. Some of the men whom he had aroused 
from sleep mounted their horses and helped to carry the 
news throughout the country. The British reached Lex- 
ington just as the sun was coming up. Some fifty minute- 
men had already gathered to oppose them. They refused 
to disperse when the British officer ordered them to do so. 
He then ordered his soldiers to fire on the Americans. It 
is not known positively whether the British or the Ameri- 
cans fired the first shot, but as a result of the firing some 
fifteen or twenty men were either killed or wounded. The 
minutemen withdrew, and the British, after sending a mes- 
senger back to Gage for more men, marched on to Concord. 
Little did they think that they had just begun a war that 
would result in the independence of the colonies. Adams 
and Hancock, who had just left Lexington a short time 
before, were walking across the fields on their way to the 
Second Continental Congress. " As the crackle of distant 
musketry reached their ears, the eager Adams, his soul 
aglow with the prophecy of the coming deliverance of his 
country, exclaimed, ' Oh, what a glorious morning is this.' " 
350. Battle of Concord. — When the British reached 
Concord, their commander placed about two hundred of 



272 The American Revolution 

them to guard the bridge which spanned the Concord 
River that flows just beyond the town. The remaining 
six hundred of the British were unable to find many guns 
or much other war material, because most of the military 
stores had been either removed or hidden. While the 
soldiers were looking for these stores, the number of 
minutemen beyond the river became larger and larger. 
They soon advanced to the bridge, charged across it, and 
drove the two hundred regulars back into the village, but 
their number was still too small to enable them to attack 
the main body of the English. 

351. British Retreat to Boston. — About noon the British 
began their march back to Boston. The Americans, whose 
number had been growing larger all the time, began at 
once to attack them from all sides. By the time Lexing- 
ton was reached the regulars were thrown into confusion 
by the constant and deadly fire of the Americans. The 
only thing that saved them from capture was the arrival 
of twelve hundred more soldiers, for whom the English 
commander had sent back to Boston in the morning. After 
resting awhile the British continued their retreat. The 
Americans at once renewed the attack from all sides, and 
the regulars reached Charlestown and the protection of 
their ships none too soon. Had the retreat required an 
hour or so longer, the entire British force would, very 
likely, have been captured by the Americans. As it was, 
the English had lost about three hundred in killed and 
wounded, and the Americans about one hundred. The 
most remarkable thing about the fighting on this historic 
nineteenth day of April was the quickness with which the 
Americans gathered for the attack. It showed how well 
the town meetings had done their work in preparing the 
people for prompt and effective action. 



Causes and Beginnings 273 

352. Results of Lexington and Concord. — The minute- 
men continued to flock to Boston, and within a few days 
Gage found himself besieged in that city by an army of 
sixteen thousand Americans. A large number of these 
men had been in the French and Indian War, and it was 
therefore only about sixteen years since they had seen 
actual fighting. Thus the first battle of the Revolution 
ended in the immediate siege of Boston by an American 
army composed largely of veterans. The news of these 
events resulted, also, in the capture of the strong fortress 
of Ticonderoga. The Americans captured this fortress 
and the small fort of Crown Point on the 10th of May. 
The capture of these two forts gave the Americans control 
of the main gateway between Canada and the Hudson 
River ; and what was of more importance still, it gave them 
about two hundred cannon and a large supply of ammuni- 
tion. Some of these cannon and other military supplies 
were brought to the American army at Boston, which was 
badly in need of them. 

353. The Second Continental Congress. — On May 10, 
1775, the same day on which Ticonderoga and Crown Point 
were captured, the Second Continental Congress met at 
Philadelphia. As in the case of the First Congress, each 
colony had sent its ablest men. Although the English and 
Americans were actually fighting, there were less than 
half a dozen men in this Congress when it first met who 
advocated or even desired that the colonies should become 
independent. Nearly all the members of this Congress 
wished to continue the union between the colonies and 
England, but all of them were determined to maintain their 
rights as Englishmen. The Congress adopted the army 
around Boston as the army of the colonies, and called 
it the Continental Army. Washington was chosen com- 



274 



The American Revolution 



mander in chief of this army. On July 6, Congress passed 
a resolution in which it stated why the colonies had taken 
up arms, and on July 8 it adopted another petition to the 
king. In both the resolution and petition, Congress stated 
that the Americans did not wish to become free from Eng- 
land, but merely wished to maintain their rights, and that 
they would gladly stop fighting if Parliament would repeal 




Battle of Bunker Hill 



those laws which it had passed that tended to destroy in 
America the ancient liberties of England. 

354. The Battle of Bunker Hill. — Toward the latter 
part of May, Generals Howe, Clinton, and Burgoyne ar- 
rived at Boston with more English regular troops. These 
new soldiers gave General Gage an army of about ten 
thousand men, and he now prepared to occupy the hills 
around Boston so as to prevent the Americans from forti- 



Causes and Beginnings 275 

fying them and bombarding his troops with cannon. The 
Americans learned that he intended to fortify Bunker Hill 
and Breed's Hill, which are just back of Charlestown. 
Charlestown and both of these hills are situated on a 
narrow peninsula which is separated from Boston by a 
narrow arm of the waters of Boston harbor. In order to 
prevent Gage from fortifying either of these hills, about 
twelve, hundred of the American soldiers advanced on the 
night of June 16, for the purpose of fortifying Bunker Hill. 
Through some mistake, or because of the darkness, they 
passed on and began to dig trenches and to construct 
breastworks on Breed's Hill, which is nearer Charlestown. 
The British were very much surprised next- morning at 
the sight of these works, and decided at once to drive the 
Americans away from this important position. The 
British could easily have occupied the narrow strip of 
land that connects the mainland with the peninsula. This 
would, very likely, have resulted m the capture of the 
entire American force. Instead of doing so, the British 
decided to march up Breed's Hill and drive the Americans 
from their works by a direct attack in front. About three 
thousand regulars were brought over from Boston in boats, 
and by three o'clock they began to advance up the hill 
for an assault on the American lines. The Americans 
behind their breastworks did not shoot until the English 
were within fifty steps, when they fired with deliberate 
aim. Nearly all the men in the front ranks of the British 
lines were either killed or wounded. The English returned 
the fire, but were soon forced to retreat down the hill in 
some disorder. They advanced to the attack the second 
time. This time the Americans withheld their fire until 
the British were within about thirty steps, when they deliv- 
ered such deadly volleys that the front ranks of the regulars 



276 The American Revolution 

were cut to pieces, and they were forced again to retreat 
down the hill. With true English pluck, General Howe 
ordered the third attack, and for the third time the brave 
regulars marched to the assault on the American lines. 
This time the American fire was weak, because their 
powder had given out. They were slowly driven from 
their works and forced to retreat back over Charlestown 
Neck. They retreated, however, in good order and fought 
with stones and their gun stocks. More than one thou- 
sand of the English were either killed or wounded. The 
American loss was about four hundred and fifty. 

355. Some Results of Bunker Hill. — The result of the 
British advance on Lexington and Concord a little less 
than two months before had encouraged the Americans 
and discouraged the English. Though the Americans 
were defeated at Breed's Hill, this battle, called the battle 
of Bunker Hill, still further encouraged the Americans 
and discouraged the English. The English now knew 
that the Americans would fight, and that the subjuga- 
tion of the colonies meant a long and bloody war. The 
Americans had learned that they were a match for the 
English regulars, and this was of great value, because 
it gave them confidence. Washington was on his way to 
Boston to take command of the army when the news 
reached him. After being told how the Americans had 
fought at the battle of Bunker Hill, he was very much 
pleased and declared that the liberties of the people were 
safe. 

356. The Siege and Capture of Boston. — General Wash- 
ington arrived at Boston on July 2, and on the follow- 
ing day he assumed command of the patriot army. He 
found it not well organized, and without much discipline. 
There was a great scarcity of powder, and an almost total 



Causes and Beginnings 277 

lack of siege guns. Washington, patiently and wisely, 
devoted the time between July 3, 1775, and March 4, 
1776, to a careful organization of his army and to the col- 
lection of the necessary military supplies. Siege guns were 
brought over the snow on sleds from the fortress of Ticon- 
deroga, and powder was secured from every possible source. 
The soldiers were drilled and a regular system for supplying 
them with food, clothes, and other supplies was established. 
Many people did not see the value of this work, and they 
began to criticise Washington for not " doing something." 
But on this occasion, as on many others, his strong char- 
acter and good judgment enabled him to say nothing in 
reply, and to go straight ahead. He knew that to risk 
a battle before his army was prepared to fight, might mean 
defeat, and that a defeat at that time would greatly dis- 
courage the Americans. He drew his lines closely around 
Boston, but did nothing to provoke a general attack until 
he was fully prepared. By March 4, he felt that the 
American army was ready to force the English out of 
Boston, and to fight a general battle if necessary. On the 
evening of that day, the Americans began a heavy 
cannon fire on the English lines. The British returned 
the fire with vigor throughout the night. While the British 
had their attention thus attracted, Washington sent two 
thousand of his soldiers forward to occupy and fortify 
Dorchester Heights. These Heights were close to Boston, 
and cannon placed on them could destroy the English 
army in Boston and the English ships in Bqston harbor. 
The two thousand Americans on Dorchester Heights 
worked hard all night, building breastworks and placing 
the siege guns in position. 

357. British Evacuation of Boston. — When morning came, 
and General Howe, who had succeeded General Gage in 



278 The American Revolution 

command, saw the cannon and the fortifications on Dor- 
chester Heights, he knew that the Americans had been 
cannonading his lines all night for the purpose of deceiving 
him. He also knew that he must either drive the Americans 
from their new position or leave Boston. The battle of 
Bunker Hill had had its effect, and although Howe at first 
decided to try an assault on the new American position on 
Dorchester Heights, he finally concluded to leave Boston 
rather than to risk an attack on the American lines. 
Howe told the people of Boston that he was going to 
leave, but that if his troops were fired on, he would burn 
the city. In order to save the town, Washington permitted 
the English to leave without further fighting. On the 17th 
of March they sailed away for Halifax and took with them 
about one thousand Americans who were in sympathy 
with England. By the capture of Boston, Washington 
secured some two hundred cannon, a large supply of 
powder, and a great quantity of other valuable military 
stores. 

358. The Declaration of Independence ; Early Sentiment. 
— The entrance of Washington and the Continental Army 
into Boston brought to an end the first period of the 
Revolution. Up to about that time the great mass of the 
American people, and most of their ablest leaders, did not 
desire to separate from England. They were fighting for 
the rights of Englishmen, but they wished to remain a part 
of the British Empire. There is ample evidence to show 
that this was the real desire of the Americans at this time. 
Reference has already been made to the resolutions which 
were passed by Congress on July 6, 1 775> an< ^ to the 
petition to the king which was passed two days later. Al- 
though this petition and these resolutions were adopted 
almost a month after the battle of Bunker Hill, Congress 



Causes and Beginnings 279 

stated specifically that the Americans did not wish to be- 
come free from England. In the resolutions which stated 
the causes for taking up arms, Congress said : " Lest this 
declaration should disquiet the minds of our friends and 
fellow-subjects in any part of the empire, we assure them 
that we mean not to dissolve that union which has so long 
and so happily subsisted between us, and which we sin- 
cerely wish to see restored. We have not raised armies 
with ambitious designs of separating from Great Britain, 
and establishing independent states." In the petition to 
the king, Congress, speaking for the American people, 
said that if the danger to their rights were removed, " your 
Majesty will find your faithful subjects on this continent 
ready and willing at all times, as they have ever been, with 
their lives and fortunes, to assert and maintain the rights 
and interests of your Majesty, and of our mother country." 
More than six months after he had taken command of the 
American army at Boston, Washington said in a letter to a 
friend, "When I took command of the army, I abhorred 
the idea of independence : now, I am convinced, nothing 
else will serve us." These expressions of Congress and 
of Washington represented the desires and wishes of the 
American people in July, 1775. 

359. Change in Sentiment concerning Independence ; 
Reasons for Change. — In one year from that time, how- 
ever, a great change had taken place, and Congress, rep- 
resenting the changed desires and wishes of the people, 
declared the independence of the colonies. This indi- 
cated an immense change in public sentiment in a very 
short time, and on a very important question. But there 
were ample reasons for this change. The king would not 
even receive the petition which Congress had adopted on 
July 8, 1775. Instead of considering it, he issued a 



28o 



The American Revolution 



proclamation on August 23, in which he declared that 
the Americans were in rebellion, and that it was the duty 
of all his subjects to assist in putting down such rebellion. 
When this news reached America, many people began to 
think that it might be necessary for the colonies to declare 




King George III 



their independence of England. Another thing that tended 
toward independence was the establishment of new govern- 
ment in the colonies. During the year 1775 nearly all the 
royal governors had been forced to leave the colonies. As 
this left many of the colonies without any legal or regular 
government, Congress recommended that the people of those 



Causes and Beginnings 281 

colonies establish such form of government as they might 
think best. Those colonies which had no charters acted 
upon this advice. Although each of these new govern- 
ments that were organized before May, 1776, acknowledged, 
in some way, its connection with Great Britain, the very 
fact that these practically independent governments existed, 
tended to create a feeling of independence. The fact that 
a Congress existed, which represented all the colonies, also 
tended strongly to develop this feeling. In January, 1776, 
Thomas Paine issued a pamphlet called " Common Sense," 
in which he called attention to all these things, and advo- 
cated the independence of the colonies. This pamphlet 
had a strong influence in causing the people to desire 
independence, but a large number of the Americans still 
desired that the colonies should remain a part of the 
British Empire. 

360. The Employment of German Soldiers. — About this 
time, however, King George did something that turned the 
tide in the colonies in favor of independence. It soon be- 
came plain that the English people were not very anxious 
to join the army for the purpose of fighting their Ameri- 
can brethren. The king and his minister saw that it was 
necessary either to compel men to join the army or to 
secure soldiers in some other way. As the ablest men in 
England were strongly in favor of the Americans in their 
struggle to maintain English rights, it would not have 
been safe for the king to have attempted to force men 
into the army. It was therefore necessary for him to secure 
soldiers by some other means. He asked Russia to hire 
him twenty thousand men, but Catherine, the Empress of 
Russia, refused. He then applied to several of the Ger- 
man states, and succeeded in hiring twenty thousand good 
soldiers and four good generals. The blame for this rests 




282 



Causes and Beginnings 283 

justly on the German princes, who hired men to the king 
for the purpose of making money. The soldiers did not 
wish to fight the Americans, and the mass of the German 
people were strongly opposed to it. The great Frederick, 
king of Prussia, felt humiliated and expressed deep regret. 
On every one of these soldiers who passed through 
Prussia he ordered his customhouse officers to collect a 
toll, as though they were "cattle exported for foreign 
shambles." The ablest men in Parliament condemned 
severely this hiring of foreign troops to help subjugate the 
Americans. When the news reached America, it caused 
the great mass of the people to decide at once in favor of 
independence. They lost what respect and affection they 
still had for the king, and from that time he was bitterly 
denounced by most of the Americans. 

361. Resolution for Independence Adopted. — Things 
moved rapidly now toward a declaration of independence. 
On May 14, 1776, the legislature of Virginia, by unani- 
mous vote, instructed its delegates in Congress to propose 
a resolution declaring " the United Colonies free and inde- 
pendent States." On June 7 Richard Henry Lee, chair- 
man of the Virginia delegates in Congress, introduced a 
resolution for the purpose of carrying out these instruc- 
tions. The debate which followed indicates plainly that a 
majority of the delegates in Congress were not ready to 
declare for independence, and a vote on Lee's resolution 
was postponed until July 1. Meanwhile the action of 
Virginia, the largest of the colonies, and the determined 
attitude of Massachusetts were having profound effect on 
the other colonies. One by one they instructed their 
delegates in Congress to vote for independence. By the 
28th of June all the thirteen colonies except New York 
had so instructed their delegates, and in a few days that 



284 The American Revolution 

colony also declared for independence. On July 1 Con- 
gress again took up Lee's resolution. It was ably debated 
on both sides and the next day adopted. On July 4 the 
formal Declaration of Independence was passed, but it was 
not signed by the members of Congress until August 2. 
The news that Congress had finally declared for independ- 
ence spread rapidly throughout the country, and was hailed 
with delight by most of the people. Thus the war become 
a war for independence, and not merely a war for the 
protection of English rights in America. 

362. England and America ; Resources and Conditions. — 
Neither England nor America was well prepared for the 
war that was to result in the birth of the United States 
and in the loss to England of the best part of her Empire. 
In some things England had the advantage, and in other 
things America had the advantage. The population of 
England was about ten millions, while that of the United 
States was only about three millions. England's wealth and 
her supply of war material were many times greater than 
those of America. There was very little gold or silver 
money in the United States during the Revolution, and 
Congress could not secure enough to pay the soldiers 
and purchase the necessary military and other supplies 
for the army. Cannon, guns, and other military supplies 
had not been manufactured in the colonies, and for their 
supply the Americans were compelled to rely on what they 
could secure from France and capture from the English. 
This lack of money and military supplies was a constant 
worry to Washington and often seriously interfered with 
his plans. 

363. Opposition in England to the War. — In neither Eng- 
land nor America were the people united in support of the 
war, but this was a more serious injury to the English than 



Causes and Beginnings 285 

to the Americans. During the first part of the war most of 
the English people approved the policy of the king and the 
majority of Parliament, but before the conflict ended a ma- 
jority of them became opposed to the war. This change 
of feeling was brought about by the loss of English trade 
with America, and by the fact that the great mass of the 
English people began to understand that the Americans 
were fighting for English rights. From the very first 
there was a number of men in both houses of Parliament 
who strongly denounced the war. Among these men 
were the ablest statesmen in England, including Pitt, 
Burke, and Fox. These and others ably defended the 
Americans in the debates of both houses, declaring that 
America was fighting for the great principles of English 
liberty, and that her defeat would be a serious blow to 
these principles in England itself. In the debate in the 
House of Lords on the Boston Port Bill, and the proposal 
to send troops to Boston, the Duke of Richmond said, 
" I wish from the bottom of my heart that the Ameri- 
cans may resist, and get the better of the troops sent 
against them." These men rejoiced openly in American 
victories. Even General Burgoyne, after his surrender at 
Saratoga and while a paroled prisoner, ably defended the 
cause of the Americans in Parliament. Such strong and 
open defense of the Americans by the greatest men in 
England caused more and more of the English people 
to oppose the war, and was of great injury to the king 
and his ministers. 

364. American Opposition to Revolution. — On the other 
hand, many of the Americans were opposed to the Revo- 
lution. All those Americans who openly sympathized with 
the English during the war were called Tories, because 
the Tory party in England had control of Parliament and 



286 The American Revolution 

had helped the king to bring about the war. Some of 
these Tories, or loyalists, raised regiments, joined the Eng- 
lish armies, and fought against their fellow-Americans. 
They assisted the English in many ways, and the feeling 
against them was bitter. 

365. The Weak National Government in the United 
States during the Revolution injured the American cause a 
great deal more than did the opposition of the Tories. 
Congress did not have the power necessary to raise soldiers 
and conduct the war with vigor. Neither did it have the 
power to levy taxes for the support of an army. Congress 
could ask the states to furnish money and soldiers, but it did 
not have the power to compel the states to carry out these 
requests. The states, as a rule, were not very prompt or 
energetic in furnishing supplies or soldiers, unless they 
were actually invaded by an English army. If Congress 
had had the power and the full support of the people, it 
could have raised a splendid army of at least one hundred 
thousand men, and furnished it with ample supplies for 
carrying on an energetic campaign. With such an army 
Washington could have driven the English from every 
state and quickly ended the war. The weak condition of 
Congress, and the lack of a cordial and well-directed sup- 
port by the states, made the work of Washington and his 
army very difficult. If the Americans had not been so 
far from England, and had not received help from France, 
the war would have lasted much longer than it did, and 
might have ended without resulting in the independence 
of the United States. 

366. Effect of Various Conditions on Progress of War. 
— As the war dragged along, the English people were 
becoming more and more opposed to it, and the king 
and Parliament were forced to tell the Americans that 



Campaigns 287 

all their former demands regarding their rights would 
be granted. The terms offered were liberal, and they 
would have given the Americans almost as free a gov- 
ernment as that now enjoyed by Canada. If the Ameri- 
cans had thought the result of the war more doubtful, 
they would, very likely, have accepted this offer, for a 
large number of them were not very anxious for inde- 
pendence. But the assistance of France, together with 
the weak manner in which England was compelled to 
conduct the war on account of her distance from America, 
the almost total lack of good generals among the English 
commanders, and the opposition of a large number of her 
people at home, convinced the Americans that they could 
soon bring the conflict to an end and secure their com- 
plete independence. 

CAMPAIGNS 

367. English abandon New England and Virginia. — 

After the English under Gage sailed away from Boston 
on March 17, 1776, they made no further attempt during 
the war to invade and subdue New England. Neither did 
they make any serious attempt during the war to invade 
and subdue Virginia. Virginia and New England each 
contained about seven hundred thousand people, which 
made their combined population about equal to that of 
all the other states. The people of Virginia and New 
England were united and aggressive in their opposition 
to England. The battles of Lexington, Concord, and 
Bunker Hill, and the siege of Boston, had taught the 
British that an invasion of New England meant the stout 
and active resistance of almost every man. They knew 
that the people of Virginia were just as united and deter- 
mined as those of New England, and that an invasion 



288 The American Revolution 

of that state, the home of Washington, would meet with 
the same strong resistance. 

368. Campaigns planned against Middle and Southern 
Colonies. — The British decided, therefore, to leave New 
England and Virginia, with their large and hostile popu- 
lation, alone, and to try to subdue the other states which 
contained fewer people and in which they hoped to find 
many people friendly to them. They thought that if 
they could get control of most of the other states, Vir- 
ginia and New England would be compelled to submit. 
After the capture of Boston by Washington, the king 
and his ministers and generals, therefore, planned three 
general campaigns, — two against the middle states and 
one against the far southern states. One was to capture 
New York City, and to secure control of the Hudson* 
River and of as much of the state of New York as possible. 
The success of this campaign would have been of great 
value to the British, because it would have given them con- 
trol of a direct line of communication between New York 
City and Canada ; and as the English had control of the 
sea, this would have completely separated New England 
from all the other states. The object of the other cam- 
paign against the middle states was to capture Philadel- 
phia, which was at that time the largest city in America, 
and to secure control of as much of Pennsylvania and 
New Jersey as possible. By the southern campaign the 
British hoped to capture the cities of Charleston and Sa- 
vannah, and to secure control of Georgia, South Carolina, 
and North Carolina. 

369. Washington prepares to defend New York. — After 
his capture of Boston, Washington thought that the Brit- 
ish would next attack New York City ; so in April he 
marched to that city and prepared to defend it with a force 




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Campaigns in the Middle Colonies 
289 



290 The American Revolution 

of about eighteen thousand men. Nine thousand of these 
men he placed on Long Island, some in New York City, 
some at Fort Lee above the city on the west bank of the 
Hudson River, and some at Fort Washington on the east 
side of that river just across from Fort Lee. 

370. British Fleet and Army reach New York. — In July 
Admiral Howe arrived in New York Bay in command of 
a strong English fleet, on board of which was an army of 
twenty-five thousand men under his brother, General Howe. 
The British army landed on Staten Island and went into 
camp. General Howe was friendly to the Americans, and 
wished to bring the war to an end without further fighting. 
But Congress had just passed the Declaration of Independ- 
ence, and General Howe did not have the authority to con- 
cede the rights which the Americans had demanded before 
the war began ; so his efforts in behalf of peace ended in 
failure. 

371. American Army defeated ; British capture New 
York. — Howe then moved his army to Long Island, 
defeated the Americans, and captured a thousand pris- 
oners. He then prepared to besiege the entire Ameri- 
can army on that island, which was strongly intrenched 
on Brooklyn Heights. With his large army and the 
assistance of the English fleet he could have soon cap- 
tured the Americans on these Heights if he could have 
succeeded in surrounding them. This would have been 
a very serious disaster to the Americans, because more 
than one half of their army was within the fortifications 
on Brooklyn Heights. Washington at once decided to 
bring this division of his army across to New York ; but 
this was a dangerous thing to do, because there were a 
strong English fleet in the harbor, and a strong English 
army ready to attack at any time. Washington, therefore, 



Campaigns 



291 



quietly collected on the New York side of East River every 
boat and barge he could secure and waited till evening. 
The night was dark and foggy, and the entire army was 
moved across the river to New York City without the 
movement being detected by the British. Howe then ad- 
vanced upon New York and drove Washington up the Hud- 











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Washington's Retreat from Long Island 



son River to White Plains on the east side of that river. 
Several small battles were fought, but neither side lost many 
men. Howe then marched down the river and encamped 
near Fort Washington, where he could either attack that 
fort or cross the Hudson into New Jersey and march on 
Philadelphia. In order to meet any move which Howe 
might make, Washington left seven thousand men just 
across from White Plains, under Lee, and sent five thousand 



292 The American Revolution 

under Putnam across the Hudson into New Jersey. He 
left three thousand at Fort Washington and a small number 
at Fort Lee. 

The capture of New York City was of great importance 
to the British. In addition to the value of its harbor to 
the English navy, the city was centrally located and was 
used by the British during the war as the main basis of 
operation for their southern campaigns, as well as for 
their two northern campaigns. 

372. Situation of American Army. — The fighting that 
resulted in the capture of New York did not, however, 
result in much injury to the American army. Although 
more than two months had now passed since the battle of 
Long Island, and the Americans had been forced to retreat 
up the Hudson, Washington had almost as large an army 
as when the fighting began. He was just about as well 
prepared to meet the British in battle as ever before, but 
all this was soon to be changed, and through no fault of 
his. He decided to abandon both Fort Washington and 
Fort Lee rather than risk the capture of his soldiers in 
them. He therefore ordered Greene to bring all the 
soldiers and supplies away from both these forts if the 
British should threaten to attack them. He also ordered 
Lee to be ready to march with the seven thousand soldiers 
under his command at a moment's notice. Washington 
then went up the Hudson River to see about building a 
fort at West Point. 

373. British Capture Fort Lee ; Character of General Lee. 
— While he was away Congress ordered Greene to hold 
Fort Washington, and just as Washington returned Howe 
captured the fort with its three thousand soldiers. This 
was a serious disaster for the Americans, and was caused 
by the meddling of Congress. Washington, who was 






Campaigns 293 

across the river at Fort Lee, from which point he watched 
the capture and surrender of the fort, had but six thousand 
men on the New Jersey side of the river. He at once 
ordered Lee, who was still near White Plains, to cross the 
Hudson with his seven thousand soldiers and join him. 
Lee was not an American, although he had come to 
America some time before the war began. He had served 
in the English army and had succeeded in convincing 
Congress that he was a great general. As a matter of 
fact, he was a worthless general, and a still more worthless 
man with a most detestable character. He cared nothing 
for the American cause, and wished simply to secure some 
glory for himself. He wished to secure Washington's 
position as commander in chief. Although Washington 
had sent him strict orders to join him at once, Lee gave 
some excuse for not obeying and kept his seven thou- 
sand men near White Plains. He hoped that Washington 
with his army of six thousand men might be defeated or 
captured, and that this might result in his own promotion. 
374. Retreat across New Jersey. — General Howe soon 
saw the weak position of Washington and sent Cornwallis 
across the river with a strong army. Washington was 
forced to make a hasty retreat across New Jersey, and 
when he reached Trenton and crossed the Delaware 
into Pennsylvania, he had less than three thousand men. 
This was the darkest period of the war. The people 
everywhere were becoming discouraged. It was now that 
the great character and ability of Washington became 
plainer than ever. Most men in his position would have 
felt like giving up the struggle. He, however, decided to 
win a victory that would encourage his countrymen to 
fight on. He soon received reinforcements from Lee's 
army, but they were not brought by Lee. That general 



294 The American Revolution 

had at last crossed the Hudson and was slowly marching 
south through New Jersey with an army of about four 
thousand men. He was writing letters in which he con- 
demned Washington, and evidently thought that he would 
soon have his position. One night, while stopping at a 
house a short distance from his army, some British soldiers 
captured him. They could not have done a better thing 
for the Americans, for Sullivan, who was next in command, 
marched at once to the assistance of Washington. 

375. Capture of Trenton. — Washington now had an 
army of six thousand men. On Christmas night he crossed 
the Delaware nine miles above Trenton, reached that 
town at daylight, and captured one thousand of the 
German soldiers. Cornwallis, who had thought the war 
about over and had made arrangements to sail for Eng- 
land, marched rapidly on Trenton from the north with an 
army of about eight thousand men. On the evening of 
January 2 Washington and his army found themselves 
between the Delaware and this British army. Cornwallis 
felt sure that he could easily capture the entire American 
force next day, and only waited for morning and for the 
arrival of two thousand more men who were advancing from 
New Brunswick. But when morning came the American 
army had disappeared. Cornwallis was very much sur- 
prised and could not imagine where it had gone, until he 
heard the booming of cannon toward Princeton on the very 
road over which he had marched the day before. During 
the night, Washington left a few of his men behind to keep 
his campfires burning so as to deceive the British sentinels, 
and marched with his army around the English forces 
straight on toward Princeton. 

376. Victory at Princeton. — Near Princeton, just before 
sunrise, the American troops met the two thousand Eng- 



Campaigns 295 

lish soldiers who had just resumed their march toward 
Trenton, and defeated them. The British loss was about 
five hundred killed, wounded, and prisoners. Washington 
had hoped to march on to New Brunswick and secure 
the military stores and supplies at that place. But he de- 
cided not to risk a battle, for his soldiers were tired, and 
Cornwallis was marching toward him as rapidly as possible 
from Trenton. Washington, therefore, marched north and 
went into winter quarters on the heights of Morristown. 
This was a very strong position and would enable him to 
attack any part of the English army in New Jersey. 
Howe decided, therefore, to withdraw nearly all his army 
from New Jersey and not attempt the capture of Philadel- 
phia during the winter. 

377. Summary of Campaign. — " Thus in a brief cam- 
paign of three weeks," says Fiske, " Washington had 
rallied the fragments of a defeated and broken army, 
fought two successful battles, taken nearly two thousand 
prisoners, and recovered the state of New Jersey. He 
had cancelled the disastrous effects of Lee's treachery, 
and replaced things apparently in the condition in which 
the fall of Fort Washington had left them. Really he 
had done much more than this, for by assuming the 
offensive and winning victories through sheer force of 
genius, he had completely turned the tide of popular feel- 
ing. The British generals began to be afraid of him, while 
on the other hand his army began to grow by the acces- 
sion of fresh recruits. In New Jersey, the enemy retained 
nothing but New Brunswick, Amboy, and Paulus Hook." 

378. Expedition against Quebec. — The siege and cap- 
ture of Boston and the campaign around New York 
and in New Jersey were the most important events of 
the war during the year 1776. There were some other 



296 The American Revolution 

military operations during that year, however, that are 
worthy of notice. An important campaign took place 
in northern New York while Washington and Howe 
were righting for the control of New York City. In 
September, 1775, Washington sent about two thousand 
men under Montgomery and Arnold to invade Canada 
and attack the strong fortress of Quebec. Montgomery 
went by way of Lake Champlain and captured Montreal. 
Arnold marched through the dense forests of Maine. 
The way was so wild and rough, and food was so scarce, 
that he lost nearly four hundred of his men in the forest. 
He finally reached Quebec with seven hundred men. 
They climbed to the Plains of Abraham by the same 
path over which Wolfe and his men had reached the 
same plains just sixteen years before. Montgomery soon 
arrived with five hundred more men. On the last day of 
1775, this small force of twelve hundred men attempted to 
capture by storm the strongest fortress in America. The 
attack was made just after midnight, in a heavy snow- 
storm. It might have been successful if Montgomery, who 
was leading one division of the Americans, had not been 
killed just as he was about to force his way into the city. 
Montgomery's death caused his men to waver and to fall 
back. Arnold, who was leading the attack on the other 
side of the city, was badly wounded ; but Morgan took his 
place and forced his way into the city, where he and his 
small force were captured. The British were heavily 
reenforced next spring, and the American army was 
compelled to retreat from Canada. 

379. British invade New York from Canada. — General 
Carleton, who had command of the English forces in Can- 
ada, soon received orders from England to invade New 
York by way of Lake Champlain and the Hudson. He 



Campaigns 297 

was to capture the fortress of Ticonderoga, march down 
the valley of the Hudson to New York City, and join Howe, 
who in the meantime was to capture that city. Carleton 
succeeded in getting together a small fleet on the northern 
end of Lake Champlain. About the first of October he 
sailed with his fleet for the fortress of Ticonderoga, at the 
southern end of the lake, and took with him on barges 
an army of two thousand men. Arnold, who had been 
watching Carleton's preparation, had built a small fleet 
to oppose him. He had worked extremely hard to build 
and equip this fleet, and although it was much smaller 
than the English fleet, he prepared to give battle at the 
southern end of the lake. The fleets fought for seven 
hours on October 11. The English fleet was badly dam- 
aged, but the American fleet was injured still more. Dur- 
ing the night Arnold quietly started for Ticonderoga. 
When the British finally overtook him, he stopped with 
his own ship and hurried the rest on to the fort. For 
four hours he fought the British fleet single-handed, and 
when the dead and dying covered the decks of his ship, 
and his other vessels were safe on their way to the fort, 
he ran her ashore with her flags flying, set her on fire, and 
walked through the woods to the fort. The British had 
been so badly crippled that Carleton sailed back to Can- 
ada without trying to capture the fortress of Ticonderoga. 
380. Summary of War during 1776. — Thus during the 
year 1776 the British were driven out of Boston and had 
failed in their attempt to capture the fortress of Ticon- 
deroga. They had also failed, as will be seen later, in 
their attack on Charleston, South Carolina. They had 
not succeeded in separating New England from the other 
states or in capturing Philadelphia, but they had captured 
New York City and had defeated the American army 



298 The American Revolution 

under Washington, although the loss of much of his army 
was due to the treachery of Lee and to the meddling of 
Congress. His able retreat through New Jersey and his 
brilliant successes at Trenton and Princeton proved that 
Washington was a general of unusual ability. He was 
now considered a great general by the military men of 
Europe. 

381. British Campaigns early in 1777. — In the spring 
of 1777 the British renewed their campaigns for the cap- 
ture of Philadelphia and for the separation of New Eng- 
land from the other states. Burgoyne, with an army of 
about eight thousand men, was to capture the fortress of 
Ticonderoga and move down the Hudson. St. Leger, with 
a force of about two thousand, was to capture Oswego, on 
the east shore of Lake Ontario, and march across New 
York to the Hudson and join Burgoyne. Howe, with some 
eighteen thousand men, was to move up the Hudson and 
meet Burgoyne. 

382. Capture of Philadelphia ; its Results. — Before doing 
this Howe decided to capture Philadelphia. Lee was still 
a prisoner in New York City, and he had now become a 
secret traitor to the American cause. It was on Lee's 
advice that Howe decided first to capture Philadelphia. 
About the middle of June he started through New Jersey 
for that city with an army of eighteen thousand men, but 
Washington so posted his army that Howe was afraid to con- 
tinue his advance, and after trying for about three weeks to 
draw Washington away from his strong position, he returned 
to New York City. Toward the latter part of July he 
placed his army on board a large British fleet and sailed 
away from New York. During the last week in August 
he landed his army of eighteen thousand at the upper end 
of Chesapeake Bay, and began his march on Philadelphia. 



Campaigns 299 

Washington gave battle at the Brandywine, but was de- 
feated with a loss of about one thousand, the British loss 
being about the same. Howe then continued his march, 
and on September 26 entered Philadelphia. Washington 
again attacked the British, at Germantown, on October 4, 
but was again defeated, each army losing about five hun- 
dred in killed and wounded. Washington's management 
of this campaign was of the highest order. Although his 
army was only about half as large as the army under 
Howe, he compelled that general to consume nearly four 
months in the capture of Philadelphia, and he did this 
with a loss of less than two thousand of his soldiers. 
Washington's main object was to prevent Howe from 
sending any men to the assistance of Burgoyne, for he 
knew that if he could prevent this, Burgoyne and his army 
would be captured. This is exactly what happened. 
Howe made a great mistake in not moving up the Hudson 
instead of marching on Philadelphia, for the capture of 
that city was of little value to the English. As the result 
of the campaign the British held Philadelphia, but Wash- 
ington's army was almost as strong as ever, and Burgoyne 
received no assistance from the twenty-seven thousand 
soldiers whom, in June, Howe had under his command in 
New York City. 

383. Burgoyne's Campaign. — On October 17 — thirteen 
days after the battle of Germantown — Burgoyne at Sara- 
toga on the Hudson surrendered his army of six thousand 
to the Americans. The failure of Howe to move troops up 
the Hudson sealed the fate of the army under Burgoyne. 
The British campaign might have failed anyway, because 
if Howe had advanced north instead of on Philadelphia, 
Washington would have followed with an army of fully 
eleven thousand men. But the failure of Howe to assist 



300 The American Revolution 

Burgoyne made the latter's defeat almost certain. On 
August 3, St. Leger began the siege of Fort Stanvvix, 
which was about halfway between Oswego and the Hud- 
son. In a few days the Americans attacked the force 
under St. Leger from both the front and the rear, and in- 
flicted a serious loss on the British and Indians. Schuyler, 
who had command of the army that was opposing Bur- 
goyne's advance, sent Arnold with twelve hundred men to 
retreat toward Oswego, only to be attacked by their Indian 
allies. But a small part of the British army succeeded in 
reaching Montreal, and thus ended in failure this part of 
the English campaign. 

384. British capture Ticonderoga and Fort Edward ; 
Schuyler's Policy. — Meanwhile Burgoyne had begun his 
advance toward New York from the north. On July 5 he 
captured the fortress of Ticonderoga and at once moved 
on Fort Edward, which was about forty miles farther 
south. He occupied this fort on the 30th, Schuyler having 
moved down the Hudson to Stillwater, which was about 
twenty-five miles south of Fort Edward and about the 
same distance north of Albany. The British army, how- 
ever, was never to reach Stillwater. Schuyler was one of 
the ablest of the American generals. As yet his army 
was not large enough to risk a battle, but it was growing 
larger each day. He did everything possible to delay 
Burgoyne's advance, as he slowly retreated in front of 
the British. The country was wet and swampy, and was 
covered with a heavy forest which naturally made march- 
ing with an army very difficult. And Schuyler, in addition 
to destroying the bridges, had trees cut down so that they 
would fall across all the roads and paths and block them. 
As a result, Burgoyne was able to advance scarcely a mile 
a day with his army. Food became scarce. Meanwhile 



Campaigns 301 

the farmers were taking up arms and gathering around the 
British as they did at Lexington and Concord. Burgoyne 
had about five hundred Indian warriors in his army. The 
conduct of these Indians, and especially the killing and 
scalping of a beautiful young girl, created a bitter feeling 
among the people, and caused the whole country to rise 
against the British. 

385. Battle of Bennington. — These farmer soldiers were 
collecting food, horses, and war supplies of every kind at 
Bennington, a small village in Vermont about ten miles 
north of Massachusetts and about twenty miles from where 
the English army was camped. Burgoyne sent a force 
of one thousand men to capture these supplies. But the 
farmers, under command of General Stark, totally defeated 
these soldiers and captured over nine hundred of them. 
The American loss was less than sixty. This was a very 
serious defeat for Burgoyne, because he was badly in need 
of food and horses, and could not afford to lose so many 
men. 

386. Gates supersedes Schuyler. — In the meantime Con- 
gress dismissed Schuyler and appointed Gates. This was 
a great injustice to Schuyler, who was just about ready to 
reap the reward of his hard work. He had conducted the 
campaign very ably, and would soon have been prepared 
to attack and capture Burgoyne and his army. Gates, like 
Lee, had been an officer in the British army. He was vain 
and conceited, and a very poor general. Although Schuy- 
ler had been unjustly deprived of the command, he offered 
his services to Gates and was willing to help in any way 
possible ; but that officer ignored him and treated him 
shamefully. Arnold and Morgan, who were under Gates, 
deserve the credit for winning the two battles that were 
yet to be fought. 



302 The American Revolution 

387. Surrender of Burgoyne. — The American army could 
hardly help but capture Burgoyne now, for it had rapidly 
increased to over twenty thousand ; while the British army, 
after the battle of Bennington, numbered only about seven 
thousand. On September 19 the English marched to 
attack the Americans at Bemis Heights, but were met by 
Arnold at Freeman's Farm and forced to stop. Had Gates 
sent Arnold the men for whom he had made numerous 
and urgent requests while the battle was raging, the Brit- 
ish would probably have been defeated. On October 7 
another battle was fought at Freeman's Farm, and this 
time Arnold and Morgan totally defeated the British. 
Arnold, with reckless bravery, led his men in the thickest 
of the fight and was badly wounded in the leg by a rifle 
ball. The success of the Americans was due largely to 
Arnold, although he had entered the fight against the 
wish of Gates, who was jealous of his great popularity 
with the soldiers. Burgoyne was now convinced that he 
could not escape, and on October 17, at Saratoga, a few 
miles north of Freeman's Farm, he surrendered his entire 
army, which had been reduced to about six thousand 
men. 

388. Some Results of Burgoyne's Surrender ; British 
Plans. — The surrender of Burgoyne brought about some 
very important results. It marks the end of the second 
period of the war, as the capture of Boston by Washing- 
ton marked the end of the first period. The British made 
no further attempt to conquer the middle states and to 
separate New England from the other states. They with- 
drew from Philadelphia in a few months, and General Clin- 
ton, who soon took Howe's place as commander in chief 
of the English forces in America, placed all his troops in 
and around New York City. He sent out expeditions to 



Campaigns 



3°3 



worry and annoy the Americans, but the attention of the 
English from this time on was directed to the southern 
states, where they soon began a campaign against North 
Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. 

389. Conway Cabal. — One of the first results of Bur- 
goyne's surrender was the attempt of Gates to have Wash- 
ington removed as 
commander in chief 
of the American 
forces, and to secure 
the position for him- 
self. He was assisted 
by other officers and 
by some members of 
Congress. Conway 
was the name of one 
of the officers who 
assisted Gates, and 
because of the part 
he took in the plot it 
is known as the Con- 
way Cabal. The plot 
was completely ex- 
posed, and Washing- 
ton became more 

firmly established in the hearts of the people than ever 
before. They soon saw that it was he who had planned 
the campaign that had resulted in the capture of Burgoyne. 

390. Alliance with France. — Another important result 
of Burgoyne's surrender was the alliance with France. 
France had been sending money and supplies to the 
Americans secretly, and Lafayette, a young French noble- 
man, had joined the American army and had become one 




Lafayette 



304 The American Revolution 

of Washington's most trusted commanders. Soon after 
the destruction of Burgoyne's army France acknowledged 
the independence of the United States and prepared to 
give open assistance to the Americans. The French 
government did not do this because it had any special love 
for the Americans, but because it hated England. If 
England should now lose her colonies, France would feel 
revenged for the loss of her American empire as a result 
of the French and Indian War. The action of France in 
declaring that she would treat the United States as an 
independent nation soon led to war between England on 
one side and France and Spain on the other. This placed 
England in a dangerous position and was of great assist- 
ance to the Americans, because England, while fighting 
both France and Spain, could not send many soldiers to 
America. 

391. Concessions offered by English Government. — When 
the English government heard of Burgoyne's surrender 
and the alliance with France, it sent three commissioners 
to Congress and offered to repeal all the laws which caused 
the war and to give up forever the right to tax the Ameri- 
cans. England was now willing and anxious to grant the 
Americans everything except independence. Had this 
been done two years before there would have been no 
war; but it was now too late, and Congress refused. 

392. Valley Forge ; Battle of Monmouth. — The important 
events of the war in the North after 1777 were the battle of 
Monmouth, the storming of Stony Point, the Indian raids, 
and the treason of Arnold. Washington's army had suf- 
fered great hardships at Valley Forge, where it was camped 
during the winter of 1777-78. Many of the men did not 
have clothes enough to keep them warm or food enough 
to eat. Washington himself said that their marches could 



Campaigns 305 

be traced by the blood stains which they left on the snow, 
because they did not have shoes to wear. But they 
endured it bravely and nobly, and did not complain. Dur- 
ing this winter, Baron Steuben, who had been an officer 
under Frederick the Great, joined the American army at 
Valley Forge and drilled it better than it ever had been 
drilled before. As a result of his excellent work, Wash- 
ington had an army of fifteen thousand well-drilled soldiers 
when spring came. In June the British army of fifteen 
thousand left Philadelphia for New York. On June 28, 
1778, Washington attacked this army at Monmouth, New 
Jersey, and would very likely have won a complete victory 
had it not been for the treachery of Lee. 

393. Treachery of General Charles Lee. — Lee had been 
exchanged, and was a general under Washington at this 
battle. He was commanding a division of the army, and 
just as the fighting began, he ordered a retreat. Lafayette 
suspected Lee of treachery and sent word back to Wash- 
ington, who rode up among the retreating troops in a tower- 
ing rage and ordered Lee to the rear. He was dismissed 
from the army, though he should have been hanged, for 
papers since discovered prove that he was a traitor to the 
American cause, and that while a prisoner at New York 
he advised Howe how best to defeat the Americans. In 
spite of Lee's work the battle of Monmouth was almost a 
victory for the Americans. The British withdrew from the 
field during the night and continued their march to New 
York City. From this on, so far as the northern and 
middle states were concerned, the British restricted their 
fighting to stirring up the Indians on the frontiers and to 
the sending out of small expeditions for the purpose of 
annoying the Americans. In order to stop the Indian 
murders and massacres, Sullivan marched into the country 
x 



o6 



The American Revolution 



of the Six Nations in 1779 and completely destroyed their 
power. 

394. George Rogers Clark's Campaigns ; John Paul 
Jones. — During the same year, George Rogers Clark con- 
quered the entire country lying between the Great Lakes and 

the Ohio River on 
the north and south 
and the Alleghany 
Mountains and the 
Mississippi River on 
the east and west. 
These campaigns 
gave the Americans 
title to all of this vast 
territory and put an 
end to the Indian 
attacks. It was dur- 
ing this same year 
of 1779 that Paul 
Jones, an American 
naval captain, de- 
stroyed many Eng- 
lish merchant 
john Paul jones vends. He even 

sailed into the English Channel, and in a brilliant and des- 
perate fight captured two English war vessels. 

395. The Capture of Stony Point also took place in 
1779. Stony Point was a well-fortified place a short dis- 
tance up the Hudson from New York City, and was held 
by an English force of more than six hundred. Anthony 
Wayne, with a force of twelve hundred men, captured 
this fort at midnight on the 15th of July. Not an 
American had his gun loaded. As they approached the 





On the March with George Rogers Clark 



307 



308 The American Revolution 

defenses of the fort, the British opened a heavy fire, but 
in a magnificent bayonet charge the Americans pressed 
over the works and killed or captured every man. The 
Americans held Stony Point but three days ; but its capture 
served to bring back from Connecticut a small force that 
Clinton had sent out for the purpose of destroying property 
and collecting provisions. 

396. General Henry Lee. — About a month later, Henry 
Lee captured Paulus Hook, a small fort close to New York 
City, and succeeded in getting away with more than one 
hundred and fifty prisoners. Henry Lee was not related 
to Charles Lee, who tried to cause the defeat of the Ameri- 
can army at Monmouth. His mother was a boyhood sweet- 
heart of Washington's, and the great commander was always 
very fond of her son. Because of his splendid and dashing 
work with Greene in the southern campaign, the people 
called him " Light-Horse Harry." His son, Robert E. 
Lee, was the great general of the Civil War. 

397. Treason of Benedict Arnold; Major Andre. — It is 
sad to turn from these brave captures of Stony Point 
and Paulus Hook to the treason of Arnold. Arnold 
was one of Washington's ablest and bravest generals. 
He felt that he had not been treated right by Congress, 
and, in fact, it had treated him and other generals 
very unjustly. It had promoted such generals as Gates, 
Charles Lee, and Conway over the heads of such gen- 
erals as Arnold, Schuyler, Morgan, and Stark. After 
the British left Philadelphia, Arnold was placed in com- 
mand of that city. There he married the daughter of a 
Tory, and got into more trouble with Congress. He was 
tried by a military court, and although he was cleared of 
nearly all the charges, Washington was ordered to repri- 
mand him. Washington did this very gently, because he 



Campaigns 309 

thought a great deal of Arnold ; and he soon gave him 
command of West Point, which was then the strongest and 
most important fort on the Hudson. Arnold at once made 
plans to surrender this fort to the English, and his plot 
was discovered just in time to prevent its success. Arnold 
succeeded in escaping to New York City ; but the British 
general Andre, who was helping to plan the surrender, was 
captured within the American lines and justly hanged as 
a spy. Andre, like Nathan Hale, whom Howe hanged at 
New York City as a spy, was an excellent man ; but as in 
the case of Hale, the rules of war demanded that he be 
executed. Arnold deserved hanging far more richly than 
did Andre or Hale; but we should not forget that Arnold 
is the same man who was wounded while leading the 
charge at Quebec, and that the same leg that was then 
injured was shattered by a musket ball at Freeman's Farm 
while he led his men in the thickest of the fight that 
resulted in the surrender of Burgoyne. 

398. British Campaigns in South. — Soon after Congress 
refused the terms which the English government offered 
through its three commissioners whom it sent to America 
a few months after the surrender of Burgoyne and the 
signing of the French Alliance, the British gave up the 
campaign for the capture of the middle states, and 
the one for getting control of the Hudson and separat- 
ing New England from the other states. They soon 
began their third general campaign of the war, which had 
for its object the conquest of Georgia and North and South 
Carolina. Earlier in the war the British had made an 
attack on the South, but it did not prove successful. 

399. Surrender of Savannah and Charleston. — In June, 
1776, Clinton, with an English fleet and army, prepared 
to capture Charleston. In order to meet any such 



V 




The Southern Campaigns in the Revolution 
310 



Campaigns 311 

attack, the Americans under Moultrie built a fort on a 
small island that commands the entrance to Charleston 
harbor. Clinton attacked this fort, but was unable to cap- 
ture it. His fleet was badly damaged in the attack, and 
in July he sailed to New York and joined Howe in the, 
attack on that city. Great credit is due Moultrie for sav- 
ing Charleston, and in his honor the fort has ever since 
been called Fort Moultrie. After this defeat of Clinton, 
no further attack was made on the southern states until 
after the failure of the two northern campaigns. During 
the latter part of 1778 a British army captured Savannah. 
The British soon conquered the entire state of Georgia. 
In October, 1779, Lincoln and a French fleet attempted to 
recapture Savannah, but were defeated with a loss of more 
than a thousand men. During February, 1780, Clinton and 
Cornwallis began to invest and attack Charleston, with a 
force of about fourteen thousand men, most of whom had 
been brought from New York City. Lincoln attempted 
to defend the city with a force of about seven thousand, 
but in May he was compelled to surrender Charleston and 
his entire army. 

400. South Carolina overrun by British. — Clinton soon 
returned to New York with the larger number of his sol- 
diers, but left Cornwallis with about five thousand with 
whom to complete the conquest of South Carolina and to 
attack North Carolina. During the next few months the 
British overran the larger part of South Carolina. The 
only resistance made against them was by small patriot 
bands under such able leaders as Marion, Sumter, Pick- 
ens, and Williams. Many Tories took up arms in favor 
of the British. This local warfare was very bitter, and 
often resulted in a great deal of cruel and useless destruc- 
tion of life and property. 



312 The American Revolution 

401. Defeat of Gates at Camden. — Meanwhile Congress 
had sent another army south and had appointed Gates its 
commander, contrary to the desire of Washington, who 
wished Greejie to have charge of the campaign. Gates 
had taken the honors of Burgoyne's surrender, which be- 
longed to Schuyler, Arnold, Morgan, and Stark; but his 
true place as a general was soon to become clear, though 
at a loss to the Americans. Gates's army consisted of 
about three thousand men, nearly half of whom were 
Maryland and Delaware regulars from Washington's army. 
On August 1 6, he attacked a force of two thousand under 
Cornwallis near Camden, South Carolina. The Americans 
were defeated with a loss of more than two thousand men, 
while the British loss was less than three hundred and fifty. 
The gallant Maryland and Delaware troops made a brave 
and splendid record, as they had done four years before at 
the battle of Long Island, when Howe captured New York 
City. They held their ground, and in a bayonet charge 
broke the British line. They finally retreated, but not 
until nearly half their number had been either killed or 
wounded, and the militia had fled from the field. Gates's 
poor judgment was responsible for this serious defeat. He 
fled from the field and in four days was at Hillsboro in 
North Carolina, two hundred miles away. Thus in a few 
months two American armies had been destroyed in South 
Carolina. 

402. Effect on Americans of Defeat in the South. — The 
people in nearly all the states became very much de- 
pressed, and many began to wonder if the struggle for 
independence might not yet be a failure. The war at 
this time was really much more favorable for the Ameri- 
cans than it was four years before, when Washington, on 
Christmas night, 1776, crossed the Delaware and began 



Campaigns 



3*3 



his advance on Trenton. Four years of war, however, had 
about tired the people out, and the worthless paper money 
which Congress had issued had nearly ruined business. The 
people longed for peace, and the end of the war looked as 
far off as ever. Little did they dream while thus discour- 
aged in the latter part of 1780 that the British would be 
driven almost entirely 
out of the South dur- 
ing the next year ; 
that Cornwallis with 
an army of more than 
seven thousand men 
would be captured ; 
and that the last 
battle of the war 
would be fought. 

403. Greene takes 
Command in South ; 
the Situation there. 
— After the destruc- 
tion of Gates's army, 
Congress asked 
Washington to rec- 
ommend a general 
to take charge of the Nathanael Greene 

southern campaign against the victorious British forces 
in the South. Washington at once recommended Greene. 
He arrived at Charlotte, North Carolina, on the 2d of 
December, 1780, and at once took command of Gates's 
army, which now numbered only about two thousand men. 
The army was small, but Greene, next to Washington, was 
perhaps the ablest American general of the war, and had 
under him a number of excellent officers. He had with 




314 The American Revolution 

him " Light-Horse Harry" Lee and William Washington, 
both of whom were excellent cavalry leaders, the last 
named being related to the commander in chief. Greene 
also had with him Morgan, Marion, Sumter, and Pickens, 
all good and tried commanders. Opposed to these able 
generals and their small army was Cornwallis, who was, 
perhaps, the ablest British general in America during the 
war. In addition to his other troops in South Carolina, 
Cornwallis had with him, a little to the south of Greene, 
more than three thousand of the bravest and best troops 
in the English army. He also had with him Tarleton, 
who was a very able commander. 

404. Battle of King's Mountain. — About four weeks be- 
fore Greene arrived at Charlotte, Cornwallis lost Ferguson, 
who like Tarleton was an officer of unusual ability. He 
had sent Ferguson with a force of more than eleven hun- 
dred men up into the highlands of North Carolina. As 
Ferguson advanced, the people began to gather around the 
British as they did at Lexington and Bennington. Fergu- 
son became alarmed and began to retreat for the purpose 
of rejoining Cornwallis, but he soon saw that he must fight. 
He selected the top of a high hill called King's Mountain 
as the place of battle. The Americans stormed this strong 
position on October 7 and killed or captured the entire 
British force, the brave Ferguson himself being among the 
killed. This defeat of the British greatly encouraged the 
people in North and South Carolina. It was under these 
conditions that Greene began his southern campaign, and 
he made the battle of King's Mountain the first of a series 
of American successes. 

405. Morgan's Victory at the Cowpens. — He sent Mor- 
gan with nine hundred men to the left of Cornwallis into 
the northwestern part of South Carolina, and marched 



Campaigns 315 

south with the rest to the right of the British. Cornwallis 
sent Tarleton with about eleven hundred men after Mor- 
gan. That general prepared for battle at the Cowpens, an 
open meadow just south of North Carolina and a short 
distance southeast of King's Mountain, where Ferguson 
had been defeated about two months before. Tarleton 
attacked Morgan on January 17, and was defeated with a 
loss of more than eight hundred. The American loss was 
less than seventy-five, only twelve being killed. 

406. American Retreat. — Morgan, with six hundred 
prisoners, began a hasty retreat north, and was soon pur- 
sued by Cornwallis. When Greene heard of Morgan's 
victory, he rode rapidly across the country to assist in the 
retreat, having sent his own army north under the com- 
mand of one of his generals with instructions to stop just 
south of Virginia. Cornwallis could not overtake Morgan 
and Greene, as the retreat was very ably conducted. Both 
divisions of the American army united, passed into Vir- 
ginia, and crossed the Dan. As Cornwallis had no boats, 
he could not cross this river. 

407. Battle of Guilford Court House ; Results of Greene's 
Campaign. — After resting his men a few days, Greene 
crossed back into North Carolina and advanced toward 
Cornwallis, whose army now numbered less than twenty- 
three hundred ; while Greene's force had increased to 
more than four thousand, but less than half of these were 
veterans. The two armies met at Guilford Court House 
on March 15. The battle raged all the afternoon, and at 
evening Greene withdrew from the field with the loss of 
about four hundred. Cornwallis lost about six hundred, 
but his soldiers made a splendid fight. The battle, how- 
ever, was a serious loss for him, because he had left but 
sixteen hundred men, while Greene's army was constantly 



316 The American Revolution 

increasing. Leaving his wounded behind, Cornwallis 
marched to Wilmington, on the coast of North Carolina, 
so as to secure reinforcements and to be under the pro- 
tection of the British fleet. Greene advanced into South 
Carolina and in a series of battles compelled the British 
to give up the entire state except the city of Charleston. 
The last battle was that of Eutaw Springs, fought on Sep- 
tember 8. Thus Greene, in a magnificent campaign of 
nine months, had changed the entire situation in the South, 
and had proven himself second only to Washington as an 
officer. 

408. Cornwallis takes Position at Yorktown, Va. — After 
remaining at Wilmington about two weeks, Cornwallis 
advanced north into Virginia, where soldiers from New 
York soon increased his army to more than seven thou- 
sand. Washington had sent Lafayette to Virginia, and 
he succeeded in collecting a force of about five thousand 
men, most of whom were militia. Cornwallis tried to 
force Lafayette to give battle, but could not succeed. As 
the American army became larger and better drilled, 
Cornwallis advanced east, and in August took up a strong 
position at Yorktown, which is on a peninsula that projects 
out into Chesapeake Bay, with the James River on one 
side and the York River on the other. Little did Corn- 
wallis think when he went into camp at Yorktown that he 
would be compelled to surrender his army within the next 
few months. 

409. Washington's March from the Hudson. — On the 
14th of August Washington learned that Admiral Grasse 
was on his way from the West Indies to Chesapeake Bay 
with a large French fleet. Five days later Washington, with 
two thousand American troops and four thousand French 
troops, crossed the Hudson above New York City and 



Campaigns 317 

started for Yorktown. He told no one except the French 
commander about his plans, and the soldiers and people 
could not imagine where he was going until he had reached 
Philadelphia. When they learned that he was on his way 
to Yorktown, they went wild with delight. Clinton thought 
Washington and the French fleet were preparing to attack 
New York, and had no idea that Washington would march 
four hundred miles south and attempt the capture of Corn- 
wallis. When he learned Washington's real object, it was 
too late for him to send reinforcements to Cornwallis. 
The French fleet arrived in Chesapeake Bay on August 31, 
and as it was stronger than the English fleet, Cornwallis 
could not escape by sea. 

410. Surrender of the English. — The French fleet had 
on board three thousand soldiers, and when these joined 
the five thousand troops under Lafayette, that commander 
planted his entire force of eight thousand men across the 
neck of the peninsula and thus cut off Cornwallis's escape 
by land. Washington arrived on the 14th of September, 
and on the 26th the combined American and French army, 
consisting of sixteen thousand men, began to invest the 
British at Yorktown. Seventy cannon opened fire on the 
British works. On October 19, 1781 (just four years and 
two days after the surrender of Burgoyne), Cornwallis, 
after a gallant defense, surrendered his entire army, which 
consisted of more than seven thousand men. 

411. Some Results of the Surrender at Yorktown. — As 
the news of the surrender of Yorktown spread through the 
states, the people gave themselves over to general rejoic- 
ing. There were bonfires in almost every village, for the 
people knew that the surrender of Cornwallis, following, 
as it did, Greene's great campaign in the South, ended 
the war. When the news reached Paris, flags were 




3i8 



Campaigns 319 

flung to the breeze, nearly all the houses were illumi- 
nated, and the people, like the Americans, gave them- 
selves up to general rejoicing. When Lord North heard 
the news, he walked the floor of his room in great 
excitement, exclaiming, " My God, it is all over." When 
Charles Fox, one of the leaders of the House of Commons, 
heard it, he sprang from his chair with a shout of joy. 
Many of the leading statesmen of England were equally 
as glad as Fox that Cornwallis had been captured. Lord 
North, who had been Prime Minister since 1770, was soon 
forced by the House of Commons to resign, and the king 
was compelled to appoint in his place the leader of the 
Whig party, that had always been friendly to the Americans 
and opposed to the war. The fall of Lord North marked 
the end of the king's personal rule in England. Never since 
then has a king attempted to rule. The people, through 
the House of Commons, have controlled the government 
and made the laws, and the king has simply reigned. The 
surrender at Yorktown, therefore, was a glorious victory 
for Englishmen as well as for Americans. The Americans 
had fought to uphold the liberties of Englishmen, just as 
their ancestors in England had often done in the years 
gone by. 

412. Treaty of Paris, 1783. — On September 3, 1783, a 
treaty of peace was signed at Paris, which ended the war 
between England on one side and France, Spain, and the 
United States on the other. The United States secured 
the territory bounded by the Atlantic and the Mississippi 
on the east and west, and by the Great Lakes and Florida 
on the north and south. Thus England acknowledged the 
independence of the United States just eight years, four 
months, and fifteen days after Samuel Adams and John 
Hancock heard, at sunrise, while walking through the 



320 The American Revolution 

fields on their way to the second session of Congress, the 
musket fire between the regulars and the minutem'en on 
the green at Lexington. The war that was at first carried 
on by the Americans almost solely for the protection of 
English liberties in America, and not for the purpose of 
securing independence, ended with the loss to England 
of the fairest and most valuable part of her Empire and 
in the birth of a nation that has now become a mighty 
power in human society. 



QUESTIONS AND TOPICS 

CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS 

Questions for Class Recitations 

(In connection with the questions on the American Revolution, each 
pupil should read the second number of Hart's " Source Readers in 
American History," pp. 153-309. See "Explanatory and Sugges- 
tive," page ix.) What was King George's attitude toward popular gov- 
ernment? Explain fully why he desired to secure control of Parliament. 
How did he succeed in doing this? Explain quite fully why Parlia- 
ment wished to tax the colonists. Was it the duty of the colonies to 
help pay the cost of the French and Indian War, and to help support 
the British soldiers in America? Why did the colonists object to 
paying the taxes levied by Parliament? Why was King George anx- 
ious to take up this quarrel with the Americans? Discuss the Naviga- 
tion Acts, explaining quite fully why they were passed. Why did the 
colonists not seriously object to these laws? Why were general search 
warrants, called Writs of Assistance, issued in connection with these 
laws? Explain why the Americans objected to these Writs. What 
effect did the issuing of these Writs have on the people? Explain how 
the Stamp Act violated the right of taxation. How was this Act re- 
garded by the Americans? Describe the action of Virginia against 
this Act. What action was taken by the other colonies? Discuss the 
Stamp Act Congress, mentioning its origin, composition, and work. 
Describe how the people treated the stamp distributors and the stamped 



Questions and Topics 321 



paper. Why did the Stamp Act never go into effect? Why did the 
English merchants have it repealed? What was the Declaratory Act 
and why was it passed? Describe the Townshend Acts. How were 
they received by the Americans? Why were all the taxes levied by 
them repealed except the tax on tea? Why was the tax on tea re- 
tained? Explain quite fully how the tea imported under this tax was 
received by the Americans. Discuss the work of Samuel Adams in 
relation to the "Boston Tea Party." Discuss the "Boston Massa- 
cre." What led to the passage of the Repressive or Intolerable 
Acts? Describe each of these acts. What effect did they have on 
the Americans? 

Explain carefully and fully how the Stamp Act, the Townshend Acts, 
and the attempt of the English government to send Americans to 
England for trial led to union of action on the part of the colonies. 
Explain carefully what led to the appointment of the first perma- 
nent Committee of Correspondence. Explain fully what led to 
the calling of the First Continental Congress. Discuss carefully the 
work of this Congress. What led the Americans to make active 
preparations for war? Describe these preparations. Describe the 
work of Samuel Adams in connection with these preparations. Who 
were the minutemen? Describe the battles of Lexington and Con- 
cord. What was the effect of these battles on the Americans ? (Each 
pupil should draw a map showing the direction of Lexington and 
Concord from Boston, and the British line of march.) Discuss the 
work of the Second Continental Congress. Describe the battle of 
Bunker Hill. Describe the siege and capture of Boston by Washing- 
ton. (Each pupil should draw a map of the neighborhood of Boston, 
showing the position of the English and the American troops during 
the siege of Boston and in the battle of Bunker Hill.) Describe the 
capture of Forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point. 

Discuss the petition sent to the king by the Second Continental 
Congress in July, 1775, and also the resolutions passed by that Congress 
at the time. What do this petition and these resolutions show as 
to the feeling of the Americans toward England? What were Wash- 
ington's attitude and feeling on the question of independence when he 
first took command of the army? Name the conditions and events 
that caused the American people within the next year to declare their 
independence of Great Britain. Why did King George hire foreign 
soldiers to fight in America? How was this regarded in Europe and 

Y 



322 The American Revolution 

in America? Tell what you can of the patriotic writings of Thomas 
Paine and their effect on the people. When and why were state 
governments formed? How did the formation of these governments 
aid in the growth of the desire for independence? Describe the pas- 
sage of the Declaration of Independence. What was the nature of the 
Declaration? How was it received by the Americans? How was the 
opinion in England divided regarding this war? What was the atti- 
tude of the other nations of Europe toward England? Were the 
Americans united in favor of the war? How did the United States 
compare with England in wealth? What was the source of its great- 
est weakness? In what respects had the United States the advantage 
of England in this war? 

CAMPAIGNS 

In what way did the battles of Lexington and Concord and the siege 
of Boston influence the British plans of campaigns ? Describe care- 
fully the three general campaigns adopted by the British after the siege 
of Boston. Explain carefully the object of each. 

Describe the capture of New York by the British. (Each pupil 
should draw a map illustrating the battles around New York City.) 
Explain how the disobedience of Lee after the surrender of Fort Wash- 
ington injured the American cause. In what way was Lee captured by 
the English ? Describe the retreat of Washington through New Jersey. 
Describe the capture of Trenton by Washington. Explain how Wash- 
ington soon after the capture of Trenton succeeded in compelling 
the British to give up nearly all of New Jersey. (Each pupil should 
draw a map illustrating the work of Washington from the time he 
began his retreat across New Jersey until he went into winter quarters 
at Morristown.) Describe the invasion of Canada by Montgomery 
and Arnold. 

What two campaigns did the British renew in the spring of 1777 ? 
Describe the campaign which resulted in the capture of Philadelphia by 
the British. (Each pupil should draw a map fully illustrating the cam- 
paign which resulted in the capture of Philadelphia, and also the battles 
which followed immediately after its capture.) In what way did Wash- 
ington's work in this campaign assist in the capture of Burgoyne and 
his army ? Describe fully the conditions and battles which led to the 
surrender of Burgoyne. (Each pupil should draw a map illustrating 



Questions and Topics 323 

the campaign which resulted in the surrender of Burgoyne.) What 
eftect did Burgoyne's surrender have on the English government ? 
What eftect did it have on the Americans ? How did it assist in bring- 
ing about an alliance between France and America ? How did the 
results of this alliance in Europe assist the Americans ? How did this 
alliance affect the policy of the English government toward America ? 
Why would not the Americans accept the liberal terms offered by the 
English government ? Describe the condition of the American army at 
Valley Forge. Why did the British leave Philadelphia in June, 1778 ? 
Describe the battle of Monmouth. Describe the storming of Stony 
Point. Discuss the treason of Arnold. After the battle of Monmouth 
why did the English army give up all the country in the middle and 
New England states except the city of New York and the country close 
around that city ? What did the British hope to gain by stirring up 
the Indians on the frontiers of Pennsylvania and New York ? Describe 
how Clark and Sullivan completely defeated the Indians. Describe the 
work of the American navy and privateers. 

Describe the attempt of the English to capture Charleston in 1776. 
Why did the British not renew the campaign against the South until 
after 1778, when their two northern campaigns had practically failed ? 
Describe the southern campaign from the capture of Savannah in the 
latter part of 1778 to the capture of Charleston in 1780. Describe 
the work of the Americans under such southern leaders as Marion, 
Sumter, Pickens, and Williams. Describe the campaign of Gates that 
resulted in his defeat at Camden. Give a full discussion of Greene's 
southern campaign. What was the importance of this campaign ? 
(Each pupil should draw a map illustrating these southern campaigns.) 

Give a full description of the campaign which led to the surrender of 
Cornwallis. How was the news of this surrender received in America, 
France, and England ? What effect did it have on the war ? When 
and where was the treaty of peace signed that ended the Revolution ? 
What territory did this treaty give to the United States ? Discuss some 
of the other provisions of this treaty that affected the United States. 
Why was the success of the Americans in this war a great victory for 
Englishmen as well as for Americans ? 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the causes of the American Revolution. Discuss the first 
period of the Revolution. (This period ended with the evacuation of 



324 The American Revolution 

Boston by the English.) Discuss the principles for which the Americans 
were fighting during this first period. Discuss the campaigns against 
the middle states. Discuss the campaign which had for its object the 
separation of New England from the middle states. Discuss the cam- 
paign against the southern states. Discuss the campaign which led to 
the surrender of Cornwallis. Discuss the effect of the Revolution on 
political liberty in America and in Europe. 

Subjects for Special Study and General Review 

(A careful study of the subjects which follow should constitute the 
review for the seventh-grade work in history and civics. The pupils 
should have ample time for the study of these subjects, and should be 
permitted free access to this book and to other available material when 
preparing these papers or written discussions.) Give a written discus- 
sion of Conditions Favorable to the Discovery of America. Give a 
written discussion of Early Discoveries and Explorations in North 
America. Give a written discussion of The American Indian. Give a 
written discussion of the Origin, Growth, and Political History of the 
Southern Colonies. Give a written discussion of the Origin, Growth, and 
Political History of the New England Colonies. Give a written discus- 
sion of the Origin, Growth, and Political History of the Middle Colonies. 
Give a written discussion of the French in North America down to and 
including the French and Indian War. Give a written discussion 
of Industrial Conditions in the Colonies. Give a written discussion of 
Social Conditions in the Colonies. Give a written discussion of Religion 
in the Colonies. Give a written discussion of Education in the Colonies. 
Give a written discussion of the Origin of American Institutions. Give 
a written discussion of the American Revolution, including its Causes 
and Results. 



THE CRITICAL PERIOD 

I. The Nature of the National Government 

II. The Northwest Territory : the Ordinance of 1787 

III. Condition of Money, Business, and Commerce 

IV. Anarchy and Rebellion 

V. The Constitutional Convention 

1. Events leading to the Convention 

2. Organization of the Convention : Character of Members 

3. Making the Constitution — the Three Great Compromises 
VI. The Constitution 

1 . Legislative Department 

2. Executive Department 

3. Judicial Department 

4. Ratification 

VII. Organization of the New Government 

413. Lack of a Strong Central Government. — Although 
the Treaty of Paris ended the American Revolution, con- 
ditions in the United States from the standpoint of both 
business and government continued very serious and bad 
indeed. In many ways the years between 1783 and 1789 
were the most dangerous and important in the history of 
the United States. The period covered by these years 
has been aptly and fittingly called by Fiske "The Critical 
Period of American History." The bad condition of affairs 
during this period was due to the fact that there was no 
strong central government in the United States. 

414. Government by the Continental Congress. — From 
the beginning of the Revolution until 1781 the Continental 
Congress directed and attended to the general affairs of the 
states. There was no other form of national government. 

325 



326 The Critical Period 

This Congress had no legal standing. It was not created 
by any constitution or law, and hence its powers and duties 
were not denned in any way. It tried to do those things 
which were necessary to carry on the war with success ; 
but as it had no power to enforce its acts or laws, its 
efforts were not always successful, and as a result Wash- 
ington's plans were often injured. It could not raise sol- 
diers, levy taxes, or regulate commerce — three powers 
that a national government must have if it wishes to live 
and have its laws obeyed. All Congress could do was to 
ask the states to do certain things. It could not do them 
itself, neither could it compel the states to do them. 
Sometimes a state granted the request of Congress, and 
sometimes it did not. 

415. Government under Articles of Confederation. — In 
1 78 1 — about two years before the war closed — a sort of 
written constitution went into effect. This constitution is 
known as the Articles of Confederation. It was prepared 
by Congress and submitted to the states in 1777, but not 
ratified by all the states and put into effect until 1781. 
This constitution simply put into written form and legal- 
ized the powers which Congress had already assumed and 
enjoyed. Congress was still the national or general gov- 
ernment for all the states, and it had no more power than 
it had before this written constitution or agreement was 
adopted by the states. In some ways it had less power. 
It could not even request the states for soldiers or money 
unless a majority of the delegates from each of nine states 
voted in favor of making such request, whereas before 
Congress could pass any measure if but seven states voted 
in favor of such measure. This was indeed a weak form 
of government and naturally did not secure the respect of 
the American people or of foreign governments. Even 



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t s/^V^^^ H^l ^.-4*°?™°' 

Al^O N.Y. Vd/ /"l-jA— ■— a 

C u t x v ( icd^y^ « 



OS 




-Jl CLAIMED Iff 

Ji.. i GEORGIA 



r Orleans 



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-4 "0 

3 



Note: 

New York, claimed Wstern land 
as far south as .the Tennessee River. 



SCALE OF MILES. 




B A H A M A v IS 



Longitude Weat 80" from Grwnwicti 



CLAIMS AND CESSIONS. 



The Northwest Territory 327 

when the war was going on, the states often did not grant 
the requests of Congress, and after the actual pressure of 
war had been removed, each state did about as it pleased. 
Congress did not have power to carry out its treaties and 
agreements with foreign governments, and as a result these 
governments, between 1783 and 1789, came to have less and 
less respect for the United States. 

416. The Responsibility for this Weak and Inefficient 
National Government rested with the people. They were 
afraid that a strong central government would try to take 
away their rights, as the government of England had tried 
to do. It required five hard and dangerous years after the 
end of the war to convince them that a strong central gov- 
ernment was necessary to their happiness and to the wel- 
fare of the new nation. The conditions and events that 
caused a majority of the American people to change their 
ideas about a strong national government, and that caused 
them to adopt and ratify the present Constitution, will now 
be discussed. 

417. Ordinance of 1787, and the Northwest Territory. — 
The most important law enacted by Congress under the 
Articles of Confederation is the Ordinance of 1787, passed 
in July, 1787. This law provided for the organization and 
government of what was then called the Northwest Terri- 
tory. This territory was north of the Ohio, and included 
what is now the states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, 
and Wisconsin. During the greater part of the Revolution, 
it was claimed by Virginia, Massachusetts, Connecticut, 
and New York, but Maryland refused to ratify the Articles 
of Confederation until these states agreed to cede it to 
Congress and thus make it the common property of all the 
states. Seeing that Maryland would not ratify the Articles 
of Confederation until they agreed to do this, these four 



328 The Critical Period 

states finally agreed to comply with her request. By 1786 
all this vast territory became the common property of all 
the states and was under the direct control of Congress. 

418. Ordinance of 1787 and Slavery Question. — As stated 
above, the Ordinance of 1787 provided for the government 
of this territory. This ordinance or law is of very great 
importance for several reasons. The government which it 
created for this territory has been extended, with slight 
changes, to all the new territory since acquired by the United 
States, except that acquired as a result of the recent war 
with Spain. The ordinance provided that the governor of 
the territory was to be appointed by Congress, but there was 
to be a legislature or law-making body composed of delegates 
elected by the people of the territory. It also provided that 
when the population became large enough, the territory 
should be divided ; that these divisions should be made 
states, and that they should be admitted into the Union on 
an equal footing with the original thirteen states. Since 
this ordinance was passed, and in compliance with the form 
of government which it provided, thirty-two new states have 
been added to the original thirteen, making a grand total 
of forty-five at the present time (1905). The ordinance 
also contained the very important provision that slavery 
should never exist in the Northwest Territory, or in any 
state that might be created from it. This was the first 
legislation of importance by Congress on the question of 
slavery. It was passed without any unpleasant discussion, 
but during the next seventy-five years there were to be 
many bitter disputes in Congress over the question of 
slavery in the territories. The cession of the Northwest 
Territory to Congress had another very important result. 
It tended to keep the states from separating during the 
critical period of our history. All the states felt that they 



Money, Business, and Commerce 329 

had a common interest in this land, and that Congress had 
charge of it for them. Congress did not really have the 
legal authority to take charge of this territory, but it very 
wisely assumed the authority. It sold the land to settlers 
and used the money to defray the expenses of the national 
government. 

419. The Lack of Hard Money in the United States during 
the Critical Period, and the very bad condition of business, 
caused great distress and suffering among the people, and 
especially among the poorer classes. No gold or silver 
money was made by the United States until 1793 — ten 
years after the Revolution. All the hard money used was 
the coins of other nations, mostly those of England, Spain, 
and France. There was very little hard money in the 
states during the Revolution, and after the war nearly 
all of this was used to pay for the large amount of manu- 
factured goods which English merchants sent over and 
which the Americans were badly in need of because they 
had been unable to secure such articles or goods while the 
British fleets were blockading the coast. 

420. Paper Money. — During the Revolution, Congress 
felt that it was necessary to issue large amounts of paper 
money in order to carry on the war successfully. The 
people of the country soon came to believe that Congress 
could never redeem this money ; that is, give a person 
a dollar of bard money for every dollar of paper money 
which he might have. When the people came to believe 
this, the value of paper money became less and less, because 
the people did not wish to accept it in payment for their 
eoods. Before the war closed a thousand dollars of this 
money was not worth a dollar of hard money. The paper 
money issued by Congress during the Revolution was called 
Continental Currency. When speaking of something worth- 



33° The Critical Period 

less, it soon became customary among the people to say 
that it was " not worth a continental," and this was the 
origin of that expression. It would seem that such experi- 
ence with the worthless continental money issued by Con- 
gress would have taught the people that it was a bad thing 
to issue paper money that could not be redeemed with hard 
money. It did not, however, for during the Critical Period 
there was a strong paper money party in all but two of the 
states. Some of the states issued paper money, but like 
the paper money which Congress had issued it soon became 
almost valueless. Nothing could have been much worse 
for the people than this worthless money. 

421. Industrial and Financial Conditions. — During the 
war the valuable fishing industry, and the still more valuable 
commerce of the states, had been almost totally destroyed, 
and the farming industry had been greatly injured. Many 
people who were rich at the beginning of the Revolution 
had become poor, and the poor had become poorer. The 
lack of hard money and the worthless paper money caused 
conditions to become worse and worse during the Critical 
Period. The people could not pay their taxes, and as a 
result Congress could not pay the interest on the money 
which it had borrowed to carry on the Revolution. It even 
had to borrow money for the running expenses of the gov- 
ernment. The states would use most of the money raised 
by taxes for state purposes first, and simply give what they 
could spare to Congress for national purposes. Congress 
had no power to compel the states to comply with its 
requests. Europe had very little respect for a nation that 
could not pay its debts, and our ministers to foreign nations 
were not treated with very much respect or considera- 
tion, and were soon unable to make treaties or to borrow 
money. 



Anarchy and Rebellion 331 

422. Urgent Need for an Efficient National Government. — 

The continuance of this bad condition of affairs with regard 
to money and business caused many thoughtful people to 
become anxious about the future of the nation. It was 
preparing people to welcome a government that would be 
strong enough to make these conditions better at home and 
secure respect from foreign nations. But the need for a 
stronger central government was soon to be made still 
plainer by the commercial war which some of the states 
began to wage against the others. Each state had the 
power to levy a duty or tax on all goods imported from 
foreign countries, and also on the goods imported from the 
other states. The different states levied a different amount 
of tax on the same article that was brought to the United 
States from Europe. This was bad enough, but when 
some of the states began to tax the goods brought from 
the other states, bitter feelings were created. Instead of 
there being one nation, it began to look as if the United 
States consisted of thirteen nations. 

423. Disputes regarding Territory. — Worthless money, 
poor business conditions, and the commercial war between 
the states were not the only troubles that befell the United 
States during the Critical Period. There were quarrels over 
territory. New York and New Hampshire actually raised 
troops for the purpose of settling the dispute over the 
territory of Vermont, and there was an angry controversy 
between Connecticut and Pennsylvania over the Wyoming 
Valley in Pennsylvania. While all of these disputes were 
finally settled without actual warfare, they indicated plainly 
to thoughtful Americans that waj* between states might 
break out at any time. 

424. Shays's Rebellion ; other Outbreaks. — In August, 
1786, an open insurrection, known as Shays's Rebellion, 



332 The Critical Period 

broke out in Massachusetts against the state government, 
and it was not put down until February of the next year. 
Many people became very much dissatisfied because the 
legislature would not pass a paper money bill. Some two 
thousand took up arms for the purpose of resisting the state 
authority, and it required more than four thousand state 
troops to put down the insurrection. At the same time 
there was open opposition to the state laws in both New 
Hampshire and Vermont. 

425. Growing Desire for a Strong Central Government. 
— It is no wonder that under such conditions all thinking 
people in the United States were becoming alarmed for 
the welfare and life of the nation, and began to fear that 
before long even life and property would be unsafe in 
some of the states. All these troubles about paper money, 
business, commerce, and rebellion had about made the 
people ready to sanction a central government that would 
be strong enough to protect life and property in all the 
states, and that would give peace and prosperity to the 
nation. As a result of suggestions by Washington, a series 
of events were taking place in Virginia and Maryland 
that were soon to give the people of the United States a 
chance either to accept or reject a constitution that would 
establish a central or national government strong enough 
for all purposes. These suggestions of Washington's were 
at first small and modest, but the series of events which 
they set in motion brought about mighty results. 

426. Washington resigns Commander-in-chief ship of Army 
and retires to Mount Vernon. — In the presence of Congress 
at Annapolis, Maryland, on the twenty-third day of Decem- 
ber, 1783, Washington resigned his commission as com- 
mander in chief of the army of the United States. He 
refused to accept one cent as pay for his services during 



The Constitutional Convention 333 

the eight years of the war. He simply asked Congress to 
defray his personal expenses when that body found it con- 
venient to do so, and submitted a carefully prepared state- 
ment of the expenses which he had incurred in the service 
of the United States. He then hurried to his old home 
at Mount Vernon, Virginia, and spent his first Christmas at 
home since the beginning of the war. It was Washington's 
desire to spend the remainder of his days quietly on his 
beautiful Mount Vernon plantation, trusting that the nation 
would become peaceful, prosperous, and strong. It had 
long been his desire to see the country west of the Alle- 
ghanies become settled, and he hoped that the trade of that 
rich territory would closely connect its people with those 
of the Atlantic coast, and thus keep the residents of these 
two sections of the country from drifting apart. 

427. Joint Convention of Maryland and Virginia for Better 
Roads. — Washington therefore suggested to his friends in 
Virginia that it would be a good thing to improve navigation 
on the upper part of the Potomac River and build good roads 
over into this new country. As part of the work would 
be on Maryland territory, he suggested that that state be 
invited to cooperate in the work. In accordance with these' 
suggestions, delegates from both Maryland and Virginia 
met at Washington's home in 1785 to discuss methods and 
plans for the construction of better roads into the western 
country. During this meeting at his home, Washington 
advised that Virginia and Maryland hold a joint convention 
for discussing still further this entire matter of building 
canals and roads, and he also suggested that this conven- 
tion might agree upon uniform duties or taxes on all goods 
imported into these states. Acting upon these suggestions 
of Washington, the legislature of Maryland sent a com- 
munication to the legislature of Virginia asking that state 



334 



The Critical Period 



to send delegates to meet at Annapolis for the purpose of 
discussing these matters, adding that it might be well to 
invite all the states to send delegates to this convention. 
Virginia at once proceeded to carry out this plan. When 
the convention met in September, 1786, it was found that 
but five states were represented. 

428. Preparations for Constitutional Convention at Phila- 
delphia. — The delegates therefore did not attempt to settle 
any of the questions proposed for discussion, but before 
adjourning they passed a resolution advising that another 
convention be held, at Philadelphia on the second Mon- 
day of May, 1787. Hamilton prepared the resolution. In 
it was embodied the idea of a stronger central government. 
Congress was asked to recommend to the several states 
that they appoint delegates to the proposed convention. 
But in the fall of 1786 that body refused to do so. About 
this time, however, Shays's Rebellion broke out in Massa- 
chusetts, and this, together with other riots and disturb- 
ances throughout the country, so thoroughly alarmed the 
people that Congress, in 1787, requested the states to 
appoint delegates as recommended by the convention at 
Annapolis. Virginia had already chosen delegates, and 
had selected Washington as one of them. When the news 
of Washington's selection as a delegate spread throughout 
the country, the people were very much pleased and began 
to take great interest in the proposed convention. People 
began to look forward to it with the hope that it would do 
something to relieve the nation of the various troubles from 
which it was suffering. 

429. Meeting of the Constitutional Convention ; the 
Delegates. — The convention that met at Philadelphia in 
May, 1787, is known in history as the Constitutional Con- 
vention, because it made or framed the present Constitu- 



The Constitutional Convention 



335 



tion of the United States. The Constitutional Convention 
is of American origin, and the one that framed our 
national Constitution is by far the most important one 
ever held in America. It was composed of fifty-five 
members, and represented all the states except Rhode 
Island. In al- 
most every case 
the states had 
sent their ablest 
men, and it is 
no doubt true 
that never be- 
fore nor since 
have so many 
able men come 
together for the 
purpose of dis- 
cussing govern- 
ment. In many 
ways Washing- 
ton and Frank- 
lin were the 
ablest men in 
the convention. 
Madison, per- 
haps, came next. He had more to do than any other 
man in actually planning the Constitution. Hamilton of 
New York was another of the ablest of those present, but 
he had very little to do with making the Constitution. 
New York was opposed to a strong central government, 
and the two other members from that state soon left the 
convention and went home. As the voting in the con- 
vention was by states, Hamilton would not alone cast the 




James Madison 



336 The Critical Period 

vote of New York, and as a result he was not present 
at all the sessions. His ideas of a national government 
were not accepted, as he advocated a strong central 
government in which the states and people would have 
less power than most of the other members desired. 
Hamilton, however, was one of the ablest and strongest 
defenders of the Constitution after its final adoption by 
the convention. There were many other delegates in the 
convention with scarcely less ability and common sense 
than those named above. This was a very fortunate thing 
for mankind, for the work to be done would affect the rest 
of the world as well as America. 

430. Method of Procedure. — Although their work was 
to be very important, but few of the members had a defi- 
nite idea of what they were to do, because the resolu- 
tion which called the convention simply stated in a general 
way that the purpose was to provide a better central gov- 
ernment for the United States. Washington was elected 
president of the convention, and it was decided to sit with 
closed doors and keep everything secret until the work 
was complete. Madison kept full notes of the debates 
and other proceedings, and many of the things which took 
place in the convention during the four months it was in 
session were not made public until the publication of his 
notes fifty years later. 

431. Revision of Articles of Confederation Proposed. — 
Some of the members of the convention were afraid that 
the people would not ratify a constitution that provided for 
a strong central government, and they therefore suggested 
that the work of the convention be restricted to revising 
the Articles of Confederation. Washington, who had be- 
come thoroughly alarmed by the anarchy and rebellion of 
the past year, at once made " a brief but immortal speech, 



The Constitutional Convention 337 

which ought to be blazoned in letters of gold, and posted 
on the wall of every American assembly that shall meet to 
nominate a candidate, or declare a policy, or pass a law, 
so long as the weakness of human nature shall endure. 
Rising from his president's chair, his tall figure drawn up 
to its full height, he exclaimed in tones unwontedly solemn 
with suppressed emotion, ' It is too probable that no plan 
we propose will be adopted. Perhaps another dreadful con- 
flict is to be sustained. If, to please the people, we offer 
what we ourselves disapprove, how can we afterward defend 
our work ? Let us raise a standard to which the wise and 
the honest can repair ; the event is in the hand of God.' ' : 

432. Convention decides to draw up New Constitution ; 
the Virginia Plan. — After this advice the convention de- 
cided to draw up a new constitution, and not to try to 
patch up the old one. The delegates from Virginia sub- 
mitted an outline for a new constitution, which is known 
as the Virginia plan. This plan provided for a national 
legislature to consist of two houses, the lower house to be 
composed of members elected directly by the people, the 
number from each state to be determined by population or 
wealth. The members of the upper house were to be 
elected by the members of the lower house. In both 
houses each member was to have one vote, and the votes 
were not to be by states, as was the case under the Articles 
of Confederation. The Virginia plan also provided for an 
executive and a judicial department. This plan would 
have given the large states much more power in the legis- 
lature than the small ones, and naturally the delegates 
from the small states would not consent to this. 

433. The New Jersey Plan. — Patterson of New Jersey 
submitted what is known as the New Jersey Plan. It 
provided for a legislative, an executive, and a judicial de- 

z 



338 The Critical Period 

partment ; but the legislative department was to consist of 
one house, to be composed of members elected by the 
states, and each state was to have the same number of 
votes. The central government would thus remain a mere 
league of the states, as was the case under the Articles of 
Confederation. The real object of this plan was to pre- 
vent the large states from having more power in the gov- 
ernment than the small ones. The discussion on this 
point, between the large and the small states, lasted 
almost two months, and was so bitter that several times 
the convention came very nearly breaking up. 

434. First Great Compromise : between Large and Small 
States. — Finally both sides agreed that the national legis- 
lature should consist of two houses. The lower house, 
called the House of Representatives, was to be composed 
of members elected directly by the people, and the number 
from a state was to be determined by the number of people 
in that state. The upper house, called the Senate, was to 
be composed of two members from each state, and they 
were to be elected by the state legislatures. In the upper 
house, therefore, the small states would have as much 
power as the large states, but in the lower house the larger 
states would have the more power, because a state with a 
large population would have many more delegates than a 
state with a small population. This agreement was the 
first great compromise of the convention, and is known as 
the compromise between the large and small states. 

435. The Second Great Compromise : between the North- 
ern and the Southern States over the question as to 
whether slaves should be counted as population when ap- 
portioning taxes and deciding how many representatives 
or delegates a state should have in the lower branch of 
the legislature. The members from the southern states 



The Constitutional Convention 339 

wished all the slaves counted, while those from the north- 
ern states did not wish any of the slaves counted as popu- 
lation. The compromise on this point provided that when 
estimating population, five slaves should be counted as 
three white people. 

436. The Third Great Compromise, on the Question of 
Commerce and the Importation of Slaves, like the second 
one, was between the northern and the southern states, 
but the South was not united in this case. All the south- 
ern states were opposed to giving the new government 
complete control of commerce. South Carolina and 
Georgia wished to have the right to continue the importa- 
tion of slaves, but nearly all the other states were op- 
posed to this. Finally the delegates from the far South 
and those from the North agreed that Congress should 
have complete control of commerce, and that slaves might 
be imported until 1808. Virginia strongly opposed both 
parts of this compromise, but it was adopted and made 
part of the Constitution. 

437. The Other Questions, regarding the legislative de- 
partment and those relating to the executive and the 
judicial departments, were carefully discussed, but they 
were all settled and agreed to without any dispute between 
the North and South, or between the small and large states, 
for there were no conflicting interests on these points. 
When the first compromise was adopted it was decided 
that there should be an executive and a judicial depart- 
ment, and the convention provided for them in the Con- 
stitution. Each of the three departments will be discussed 
more in detail in the three paragraphs which follow. 

438. Close of the Constitutional Convention. — On Sep- 
tember 17 the convention finished its labors. During the 
four months that it had been in session, it had framed the 



34o 



The Critical Period 



greatest constitution ever conceived. Its members seemed 
to feel this, and were profoundly impressed. On the last 
day, when all was finished, silence spread over the conven- 
tion. " Washington sat with bowed head in silent medita- 
tion." Franklin felt that he had lived to see the dream of 
his life accomplished. Fiske says : " On the back of the 




Signing of the Constitution, September 17, 1787 

From an early unfinished picture. This shows the arrangement of the room and 

the sun behind Washington's chair 

president's quaint black armchair there was emblazoned a 
half-sun, brilliant with its gilded rays. As the meeting was 
breaking up and Washington arose, Franklin pointed to 
the chair, and made it the text for prophecy. 'As I have 
been sitting here all these weeks,' said he, ' I have often 
wondered whether yonder sun is rising or setting. But 
now I know that it is a rising sun.' " 



The Constitution 341 

439. Congress — the Senate and the House of Representa- 
tives. — As has already been stated, the new Constitution 
provided for a national legislature. This legislature is 
called the Congress of the United States, and is composed 
of two houses, — a lower house, called the House of Repre- 
sentatives, and an upper house, called the Senate. The 
national legislature was modeled very closely after the state 
legislatures, each of which was composed of two houses, 
and in many of the states the upper house was called the 
Senate and the lower one the House of Representatives. 
The members of the national House of Representatives are 
elected by the people for a term of two years, and in about 
the same way as the members of the state legislatures are 
elected. The new national government, therefore, acted 
upon each individual citizen, while the government under 
the Articles of Confederation acted upon the states. This 
is a most important difference. It makes our present cen- 
tral government a national government, while the old 
central government was simply a confederation of states. 
The members of the Senate are elected by the state legis- 
latures for a term of six years. They represent the states, 
and not the people directly, and hence the Senate in this 
respect is much like what Congress was under the Articles 
of Confederation. Because the House of Representatives 
represents the people directly, and the Senate does not, all 
bills or laws for levying taxes or raising revenue must 
begin or originate in the House. On the other hand, the 
Senate has the exclusive right to approve the appoint- 
ments made by the President of the United States, and to 
help him make treaties with other nations. All the powers 
not granted to the national government by the Constitution, 
or prohibited to the states by it, still belonged to the states 
or the people. The Constitution, however, conferred all 



34 2 The Critical Period 

the power necessary for a strong national government. 
Under its powers, Congress can declare war and make 
peace, raise and support armies, levy taxes, regulate com- 
merce, and coin money. These powers made it possible 
for the new government to enforce its laws, and secure the 
respect of the American people and of foreign nations. 

440. President and Vice President. — The new Constitu- 
tion created a strong executive department. The officer 
at the head of this department is called the President of 
the United States. He is elected for a term of four years 
by men selected in the different states especially for this 
purpose (see the Constitution of the United States). There 
is also a Vice President, who is elected in the same way. 
The Vice President is presiding officer of the Senate, and 
if the President should die or be removed from office, or 
become unable to perform the duties of his office, the Vice 
President becomes President. The President is commander 
in chief of the army and navy of the United States. In 
addition to other important duties he must defend the 
Constitution of the United States ; execute, or carry out, 
the laws passed by Congress ; appoint foreign ministers 
and make treaties with foreign nations ; but all such 
appointments and treaties must be ratified by the Senate. 

441. The Executive Departments ; the Cabinet. — In order 
to assist the President with his great and important work, 
Congress has, from time to time, created a number of 
executive departments. At the present time there are nine 
of these departments. They are the Department of State, 
the Treasury, War, Navy, Post Office, Interior, Justice, 
Agriculture, and Commerce. At the head of each depart- 
ment is an officer called the Secretary, but the head of the 
Post Office Department is called the Postmaster-general, 
and the head of the Department of Justice is called the 



The Constitution 



343 



Attorney-general. Under each secretary is a large number 
of men and women who help perform the duties of the 
department. The nine heads of departments comprise or 
constitute the President's Cabinet. The President often 
calls them together for advice and for the purpose of 
talking over public matters. Such a meeting is called a 
Cabinet Meeting. The President appoints the nine heads 
of departments and many of the other more important 
officials in the departments. All appointments made by 
the President must be ratified by the Senate. 

442. The President as a Factor in Legislation. — In addi- 
tion to these important executive duties, the President takes 
a very important part in legislation. He can veto or object 
to any bill passed by Congress, and such bill will not then 
become a law unless each house of Congress again passes 
it by a two-thirds vote. If the President signs a bill passed 
by Congress, it becomes a law, and if he neglects to either 
sign or veto it within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it 
is presented to him, it becomes a law, provided Congress 
is still in session. From all this it will be seen that the 
new Constitution created a very powerful executive de- 
partment, whereas under the Articles of Confederation 
there was no executive department at all. 

443. Courts, Circuits, and Districts. — The new Consti- 
tution created a judicial department, which was to consist 
of a Supreme Court and of such inferior courts as Con- 
gress might establish. By the wise legislation of Congress 
the judicial department has become of great importance 
in our government. At the head is the Supreme Court, 
which consists of nine judges or justices, one of whom 
is Supreme Justice. The Supreme Justice has no more 
power or authority than the other eight justices, except 
that he may preside at the sessions of the court. Con- 




Chief Justice John Marshall 
From the portrait by Jarvis, owned by Justice Gray 



344 



The Constitution 



345 



gress has also created a number of lower courts, called 
Circuit Courts, District Courts, the Court of Claims, and 
Circuit Court of Appeal. In order that the United States 
courts may better perform their duties, and in order to 
make it more convenient for the people who may have 
business in them, the United States is divided into a num- 
ber of judicial districts. It is first divided into nine dis- 
tricts, sometimes called circuits, and each of these nine 
districts is divided into smaller districts. In addition to his 
duties as a member of the Supreme Court, which holds 
its meeting at Washington, each of the nine Supreme Jus- 
tices is assigned to one of these nine districts, and he must 
hold a court, called Circuit Court, in his district at least 
every two years. There are from two to four circuit judges 
in each circuit district to assist the Supreme Justice in 
holding these Circuit Courts. As stated above, each of 
the nine circuit districts is divided into smaller districts, and 
there is a separate judge for nearly all of these smaller 
districts. The district judge holds what is called a District 
Court. There is also what is called a Circuit Court of 
Appeals in each of the nine circuit districts. There are no 
separate judges for this court. It is held by the regular 
circuit judges of the circuit district and by the Supreme 
Justice assigned to that district. The Court of Claims is 
composed of five judges, and holds its meetings or sessions 
at Washington. All the judges of all these courts are 
appointed by the President, but each appointment must be 
confirmed by the Senate. They hold office for life, unless 
removed by Congress for misconduct. It is the duty of 
all these courts to interpret and apply the laws that relate 
to the national government. 

444. The Court of Claims, however, is really not a part 
of the regular judicial department. Sometimes the army of 



346 The Critical Period 

the United States or some of its officers are compelled to use 
or injure the property of a citizen, and because of circum- 
stances may not be able to pay him for the same. As the 
United States cannot be sued, this man could not present 
his claim to any of the regular courts. He can bring the 
matter before the Court of Claims, however, and it can 
recommend to Congress that it pay him a certain amount. 
Congress then may exercise its own judgment, but it usu- 
ally adopts the recommendations of the Court of Claims. 

445. Jurisdiction of the Several Courts. — The Constitu- 
tion, the laws passed by Congress, and the treaties of the 
United States are interpreted and applied by the regular 
United States courts. There are some questions or cases 
that can be tried and decided only by the Supreme Court. 
A class of less important questions can be tried and de-. 
cided first by the Circuit Courts, and a class of still less 
important questions can be decided first in the District 
Courts. If a man thinks that some one is trying to 
deprive him of something to which he is entitled by the 
Constitution, or by a law passed by Congress, he can bring 
an action in any of the United States courts for the pur- 
pose of securing what belongs to him. If the case is one 
that must be tried first in a District Court, he must bring 
it before the court of the district in which he has been 
wronged. In many cases, if either party is not satisfied 
with the decision of this court, he may appeal to the 
Circuit Court ; if either party is not satisfied with the de- 
cision of the Circuit Court, he may appeal to the Circuit 
Court of Appeals ; and in many cases, if either party is not 
satisfied with the decision of the Court of Appeals, he may 
appeal to the Supreme Court. The suit or case just dis- 
cussed is one that is brought by a citizen ; but the United 
States through its officers may also bring suit against any 



The Constitution 347 

one who violates either the Constitution or a law passed 
by Congress. 

446. The Supreme Court. — In all cases the decision of 
the Supreme Court is final. Its decision and the decisions 
of the lower courts will be enforced, even if to do so requires 
the use of the entire army and navy of the United States. 
In deciding a case, the Supreme Court may declare that 
some act of the President, or that some law which Con- 
gress has passed, is not in accord with the Constitution, 
and that therefore it is null and void. Thus it becomes 
plain that the Supreme Court interprets and applies the 
Constitution, and that in this important respect it is at the 
very head of the national government. The high character 
and ability of the Supreme Court have made it honored 
and respected all over the world. No other nation has a 
court which has such supreme power. In framing the 
legislative and executive departments of the new govern- 
ment, the Constitutional Convention simply applied to the 
national government the principles of government that 
already existed in the states and in England ; but when it 
gave to the Supreme Court the right to interpret the Con- 
stitution, and to set aside a law of Congress, it created a 
new principle of government, which is of the very greatest 
importance. 

447. The Constitution before the States. — The Consti- 
tutional Convention did its work well. It framed the 
best constitution for a national government that has ever 
been prepared by any body of men. Under it the United 
States has become one of the greatest and most pros- 
perous nations of the world. To us it may seem that 
the different states would have been glad to ratify and 
adopt the excellent Constitution made by the convention. 
But this was not the case. It seemed for a while that the 



348 The Critical Period 

new Constitution would never go into effect. The Con- 
stitution itself provided that it should not go into effect 
until it had been ratified by at least nine of the states. 
After a lively debate the old Congress submitted the Con- 
stitution to the people of the various states. Then began 
one of the ablest and most remarkable campaigns in the 
history of America. During the four months that the 
convention was in secret session the people had become 
very anxious to know what kind of government it would 
propose. Many were afraid that the convention would 
provide for a government that would be dangerous to the 
rights of the people. Their experience with the English 
government made them afraid of a strong central govern- 
ment. It was but natural, therefore, that when the new 
Constitution was printed and sent out through the states, 
many people should oppose its ratification. They asserted 
that the central government for which it provided was too 
strong, and that it would become unjust and overthrow the 
rights and liberties of the people. In most of the states 
the people soon became divided into two parties. Those 
who favored the ratification of the Constitution were called 
Federalists, and those who opposed its ratification were 
called Anti-Federalists. 

448. Ratification of the Constitution. — The people did 
not vote directly on the ratification of the Constitution. It 
was ratified either by special conventions elected for that 
purpose or by the state legislatures. The greatest contests 
were in New York, Massachusetts, and Virginia. Hamilton 
and Madison were the leaders of those who favored the rati- 
fication of the Constitution. One paper published eighty- 
five articles, all of which favored strongly the ratification 
of the new Constitution. These articles were later pub- 
lished in book form and are known as " The Federalist." 



Organization of the New Government 349 

They constitute, perhaps, the ablest discussion of govern- 
ment ever written. They had a profound effect on the 
people, and turned the tide in favor of the Constitution. 
They were written by Hamilton, Madison, and Jay, most 
of them being written by Hamilton. In the New York 
convention this man was a tower of strength. Gov- 
ernor Clinton was strongly opposed to the Constitution, 
but Hamilton for weeks argued almost every clay for its 
ratification. After a magnificent contest he was success- 
ful. On July 26, 1788, New York ratified the Constitu- 
tion, but by the narrow majority of three votes. The 
contest in Massachusetts and Virginia had been almost as 
strong and close. After more than three weeks of debat- 
ing, the Massachusetts convention in February, 1788, rati- 
fied the Constitution by the close vote of one hundred 
eighty-seven to one hundred sixty-eight. Madison led the 
fight for the Constitution in Virginia, and on June 25 of 
the same year that state approved of the new plan of 
government, the vote being eighty-nine to seventy-nine. 
While nine states had already ratified the Constitution, the 
new government, without the support of Virginia and New 
York, would very likely not have been a success. New 
York was the eleventh state to take honorable action, and 
in so doing removed the last doubt regarding the success 
of the work done by the Constitutional Convention. 

449. Organization of the New Government. — By the 
ratification of the new Constitution the government which 
had been created by the Articles of Confederation came 
to an end. Electors to elect the first President of the 
United States were chosen on the first Wednesday of Janu- 
ary, 1789. They were to choose a President on the first 
Wednesday in February, and Congress was to meet on the 
first Wednesday in March and count the vote for President 




George Washington 



35° 



Questions and Topics 351 

as provided in the Constitution. But Congress did not 
organize until April. 6. As New York did not choose 
electors, and as North Carolina and Rhode Island had not 
yet ratified the Constitution, there were but sixty-nine elec- 
toral votes for President. Washington received every vote, 
and thus became the first President of the United States. 
John Adams received the next largest number and became 
the first Vice President. Congress at once began to organ- 
ize the different departments of government in accordance 
with the Constitution. It passed laws organizing the 
courts of the judicial department. It also passed laws 
organizing the executive or cabinet departments of state, 
the treasury, war, and justice. The department of justice 
was not fully organized until later, and the other cabinet 
departments have all been created since then. Washing- 
ton appointed Jefferson the first Secretary of State, Ham- 
ilton the first Secretary of the Treasury, Knox the first 
Secretary of War, and Randolph the first Attorney- 
general. Thus came to an end the Critical Period of 
American history, and thus went into effect the present 
Constitution of the United States. 

QUESTIONS AND TOPICS 

THE CRITICAL PERIOD 

Questions for Class Recitations 

Why may the time between 1783 and 1789 be called '-The Critical 
Period of American History 11 ? Describe the nature of the national 
government during the Revolution until the adoption of the Articles 
of Confederation in 1781. Describe the nature of the national govern- 
ment provided for by the Articles of Confederation. In what way did 
the Articles of Confederation assist to bring about the bad condition of 
affairs that existed during the Critical Period? During this period why 
were the people opposed to creating a strong central government ? 



352 The Critical Period 

To what territory did the Ordinance of 1787 apply? Describe 
in full the government provided for by this ordinance. Discuss the 
importance of this ordinance with regard to slavery and the govern- 
ment of the territories of the United States. Describe fully the condi- 
tions of money and business during the Critical Period. What brought 
about these conditions ? Give a careful discussion of the more impor- 
tant results of these conditions. Describe fully what is meant by 
"Anarchy and Rebellion " during the Critical Period. How did this 
threaten the life of the nation? How did these disturbances assist 
in preparing the way for the adoption of a strong central government? 

Describe fully the events leading to the Constitutional Convention. 
Tell what you can about the men that composed the convention. 
How was the convention organized? Did the convention exceed the 
purpose for which it was called? Describe fully each of the three 
great compromises of the convention. (In studying the national" 
government in accordance with the questions which follow, the pupil 
should make constant use of the Constitution.) For how many depart- 
ments of government did the new Constitution provide? Compare this 
plan of government with that which existed during colonial times and 
also with that which exists in the states at the present time. Describe 
in a general way the legislative department created by the Constitution. 
What powers and duties belong to the House of Representatives that 
do not belong to the Senate? What are the reasons for this? What 
powers and duties belong to the Senate that do not belong to the 
House of Representatives? What are the reasons for this? Describe 
the general powers and duties of Congress. How are senators and 
representatives elected? What is the reason for having a senator's 
term of office longer than that of a representative's? Describe in a 
general way the executive department created by the Constitution. 
How are the President and Vice President of the United States elected, 
and for how long a term? Describe in full the President's Cabinet and 
its general powers and duties. Describe fully the general powers. and 
duties of the President. What power has the President in legisla- 
tion? What are the duties of the Vice President? Describe in a gen- 
eral way the judicial department created by the Constitution. Describe 
briefly the different classes of United States courts. Discuss the gen- 
eral powers and duties of the judicial department. Compare with 
regard to its power the Supreme Court of the United States with the 
supreme courts of other nations. 



Questions and Topics 353 

When the Constitution was submitted to the people for their ap- 
proval, why were many opposed to its ratification? Explain fully what 
is meant by Federalist and Anti-Federalist during the campaign for the 
ratification of the Constitution. Who were some of the leading Feder- 
alists and Anti-Federalists? Who wrote - The Federalist," and what 
was its effect on the campaign for the ratification of the Constitution? 
Discuss briefly the campaign which resulted in the ratification of the 
Constitution. Discuss the organization of the new government. 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the nature of the national government during the Critical. 
Period. Discuss the conditions of the country during the Critical 
Period. Discuss the Ordinance of 1787. Discuss the events which 
led to the Constitutional Convention. Explain fully the three great 
compromises. Discuss the national government provided for by the 
Constitution. Discuss the ratification of the Constitution. 



NATIONAL GROWTH AND EURO- 
PEAN INTERFERENCE 

THE PERIOD OF EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

I. Origin of American Neutrality in European Affairs 

II. The Jay Treaty 

III. The Breach with France 

IV. The Alien and Sedition Acts 

V. The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions 
VI. The Purchase of Louisiana 

VII. European Interference with American Commerce 
i . Decrees and Orders in Council 
2. The Embargo Policy of Jefferson 
VIII. The War of 1812, or the War for Commercial Independence 

1 . Causes 

2. The American Army and Navy 

3. The War on Land 

4. The War on Sea 

5. Results 

IX. The Hartford Convention 

X. Purchase of Florida 

XL The Monroe Doctrine 

XII. End of the Period of European Interference 

FINANCIAL LEGISLATION: THE TARIFF 

I. Hamilton's Financial Measures 

1. Tariff Duties 

2. Excise 

3. Funding of the National Debt 

4. Assumption of State Debts 

5. Establishment of the United States Bank 
II. Jefferson and Gallatin's Financial Policy 

III. The National Bank and State Banks 

354 



The Period of European Interference 355 

IV. Tariff Legislation 

1. The First Tariff Act 

2. Growth of the Idea of Protection 

POLITICAL PARTIES 

I. Rise of Political Parties 
II. The Federalist Party: its Rise and Fall 
III. The Republican Party : its Rise and Fall 

GROWTH OF THE NATION 

I. Growth in Territory and Population 
II. Movement of Population — Causes and Direction 

III. Results of Westward Expansion 

1. Formation of New States 

2. Internal Improvements 

3. Struggle over Slavery : the Missouri Compromise 

IV. Growth of National Unity 

INSTITUTIONAL LIFE 

I. Industrial Conditions 

1. Manufactures 

2. Agriculture 

3. Commerce, Transportation, and Communication 

4. Inventions and Discoveries 

II. Social Conditions 

III. Government 

IV. Religion 
V. Education 



2 $6 National Growth 

THE PERIOD OF EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

450. Two Periods of History. — The history of the 
United States from the time the new government was 
organized in 1789 to the beginning of the Civil War in 
1 861 may be divided into two periods. The first period 
extends from 1789 to about 1828, and the second from 
about 1828 to the Civil War. This division is based on 
strictly historical grounds. The history of the United 
States during these periods was shaped and controlled by 
many forces and conditions, but in each period certain 
causes and conditions stand out clearly as the determin- 
ing factors in its history. 

451. National Growth, European Interference, and Slav- 
ery. — During the greater part of the first period the in- 
terference of foreign nations in the affairs of the United 
States had a profound effect on our history. A large 
part of the legislation of Congress related either directly 
or indirectly to this interference. This constant med- 
dling in our affairs by Europe led finally to another war 
with England, which secured for the United States the 
proper respect and consideration of all the other nations. 
The main or controlling force in the history of the United 
States during the second period was the question of slav- 
ery in its relation to the westward growth of the nation in 
territory and population. During both periods the growth 
of the United States in territory, wealth, and population 
was most rapid and important; but the main question in 
relation to this growth during the first period was Euro- 
pean interference, and the main question during the second 
period was slavery. During the first period, however, 
slavery was quietly becoming more and more firmly estab- 
lished in the South, but the pressure of foreign nations on 



The Period of European Interference 357 

the United States and the manner in which the western 
country was settled kept this question fairly quiet. The 
opposition to Europe during the first period tended to unite 
the American people and to create in them a patriotism 
and love for the nation and the national government, and 
to break down the idea of state sovereignty that existed 
when the Constitution was adopted. During this first 
period, however, slavery was quietly causing the social and 
the industrial conditions of the North and South to become 
more and more unlike, and during the second period this 
resulted in bitter discussions that ended in the American 
Civil War. It therefore becomes plain that the control- 
ling forces or conditions in the history of the United States 
from 1789 to about 1828 were European interference in 
our affairs and the rapid growth of the nation in territory 
and population, and that the controlling force or condition 
in our history from about 1828 to 1861 was the slavery 
question in relation to this continued rapid growth of the 
nation along these same lines. Hence, the first period 
will be called National Growth and European Interfer- 
ence, and the second period, Westward Expansion and 
Slavery. 

452. Election of Andrew Jackson. — There are two other 
important reasons why the time about 1828 may be con- 
sidered as marking the end of a period in the nation's 
history. These were the election of Jackson and the revo- 
lution in industrial conditions which took place about that 
time. Democratic ideas had been spreading among the 
people, but before the election of Jackson the government 
had been controlled largely by the educated and wealthier 
classes. His election was the triumph of the common 
people. During his administrations there was a revolution 
in political methods. It was then that the Spoils System, 



35§ 



National Growth 



the national nominating convention, and popular political 
campaigns were introduced into national politics. 




Andrew Jackson 

453. The Industrial Revolution which took place about 
1828 was of even greater importance than the political rev- 
olution just noted. Before that time the sewing machine, 



The Period of European Interference 359 

the reaper, the threshing machine, and the railroad had 
not come into use. Soon after Jackson's election these 
and many other valuable inventions were made. The use 
of this valuable machinery and the revolution in trans- 
portation and communication caused by the railroad and 
the telegraph worked a profound change in the indus- 
trial and social life of the people. The many important 
forces and conditions which either terminated or originated 
about 1828 marked the beginning of a new period in our 
history. 

454. Political Conditions in France. — When Washington 
became the first President of the United States, the peo- 
ple of France did not govern themselves as did the Ameri- 
cans. During the several hundred years before that time 
the French people did not have the right to help make 
their laws or assist in carrying on their government. The 
king and his ministers and nobles governed France with- 
out considering the wishes and desires of the people. The 
taxes were so high that thousands of the common people 
starved to death every year, while the nobles lived in 
luxury and wasted the money unjustly taken from the 
people. In no great nation since the fall of Rome were 
the people oppressed so cruelly as were those of France 
during all these years. The peasants were driven from 
their homes because they could not pay the high rents 
and taxes imposed on them. Men and women who had 
committed no crime were often thrown into prison and 
put to death without trial. It was but natural that the 
people should hate a government that oppressed them in 
this way, and that they should desire to destroy it. The 
French knew of the American Revolution, and knew that 
the Americans had established a government which they 
controlled and under the laws of which every person 



360 National Growth 

had equal rights. French soldiers and French money had 
helped the Americans during the Revolution, and the 
French were therefore specially interested in the govern- 
ment of the United States. The example of the young 
republic of the New World helped to cause the people of 
France to attempt to destroy their unjust and oppressive 
government. 

455. The French Revolution. — In 1789 the French peo- 
ple began what is known in history as the French Revo- 
lution. This was a most bloody civil war. The people 
defeated the armies of the king, destroyed the government, 
and beheaded both the king and the queen. Thousands 
of the nobles were beheaded. In Paris, women and girls 
brought their sewing and knitting to the place of exe- 
cution, and while they sewed and knit, kept a record of 
the number beheaded by counting each head as it dropped 
into the basket. These and many similar acts shocked 
and horrified all Europe, but they were the natural result 
of the long years of oppression which the French people 
had suffered at the hands of their king and his nobles. 
The rulers of the other nations of Europe became alarmed, 
however, at what was taking place in France. 

456. War between England and France begins ; Senti- 
ment in America. — The policy of the new French govern- 
ment caused war to break out between France and Eng- 
land. This was in 1793, less than three years after the 
new government of the United States was organized, and 
but ten years after the end of the American Revolution. 
The people of France expected the people of the United 
States to help them in this war. They expected this be- 
cause they had helped the Americans during the Revolu- 
tion, and because they now, like the Americans then, were 
fighting for the right to make the laws and control 



The Period of European Interference 361 

the government under which they Jived. The French 
people were not mistaken in the desire of the Americans 
to help them. Genet, an agent of the French government, 
came to the United States for the purpose of securing 
assistance for France in her war with England. Genet, 
called " Citizen Genet," before presenting to Washington 
his papers of appointment, called credentials, held meet- 
ings in several states and worked up great enthusiasm for 
the French cause. The Americans organized clubs for the 
assistance of France ; wore the French cockade or tricolor 
on their hats; and addressed one another as "Citizen," as 
had become the custom in France. The people all over 
the United States, in mass meetings and through the 
press, urged and demanded that the government assist 
France. 

457. Probable Result of American Interference. — But 
for the United States to do this meant the destruction 
of American commerce and war with the English and 
Indians along the frontier. Of far more importance, how- 
ever, was the fact that for the United States to meddle in 
a war between France and England, in which she had no 
especial interest, would set an example that would cause 
her to become involved in many other European quarrels 
and wars which did not directly affect American affairs. 
The time had come thus early in her history when the new 
nation was called upon to decide whether she would take 
part in European affairs which did not concern her par- 
ticularly, and which must result in the frequent destruction 
of her commerce and in the useless loss of her best men, 
or whether she would remain neutral. 

458. American Neutrality Proclaimed. — Washington 
clearly foresaw the vast importance of this decision, and 
after mature deliberation he announced in a proclama- 



362 National Growth 

tion that the policy of the United States should be non- 
interference in European affairs. This decision marked 
him as a statesman of the highest rank. The people in 
general denounced the proclamation and demanded that 
France be given assistance ; but the President, with a 
courage equal to that which he had shown on many a 
battlefield, held to his purpose calmly, and was finally sus- 
tained by Congress. Thus was born American Neutrality 
in European Affairs. The United States has ever since 
adhered steadfastly to this principle. The importance of 
this principle or unwritten law can hardly be overesti- 
mated. It has saved this nation from many a bloody 
and useless war, and has permitted it to develop its great 
natural resources unmolested by European quarrels and 
conflicts. At the suggestion of Washington and under 
his wise direction, the United States established the un- 
written law that she would not interfere with those 
affairs of Europe which did not directly concern her. 
Thirty years later, during Monroe's administration, she 
established the unwritten law, called the Monroe Doc- 
trine, which denies to any European nation the right to 
interfere with strictly American affairs unless directly con- 
cerned. 

459. Controversies with England; Rule of 1756. — The 
next serious foreign questions which the new govern- 
ment was called upon to deal with were the disagree- 
ments and misunderstandings with England. The Treaty 
of 1783, which brought the Revolution to an end, left some 
important questions unsettled, and neither the United States 
nor Great Britain had carried out in good faith some of 
the provisions of that treaty. The war between England 
and France had given rise to other difficulties. The Eng- 
lish insisted on enforcing what is known as the " Rule of 



The Period of European Interference 363 

1756," which provided that a neutral nation could not 
enjoy in time of war a trade prohibited in time of peace. 
For instance : the Americans were not allowed by France 
to trade with the French West Indies in time of peace, 
but when the war broke out with England, the French 
were glad to open their West India ports to American 
commerce for the sake of obtaining supplies. By the 
Rule of 1756, which Great Britain now put in force, this 
trade was forbidden to Americans, and thus their com- 
merce was greatly injured. This action and the refusal 
of the English to surrender all the forts on the frontier 
as provided by the Treaty of 1783, and their attempts to 
induce the Indians to attack the Americans, created in the 
United States a strong feeling against England. 

460. Right of Search. — But what created the strongest 
feeling against her was her claim that she had the right 
to search American vessels anywhere on the seas, and 
to take English sailors by force from such vessels and 
compel them to work on British ships. This is known 
as "The Right of Search " and the impressment of British 
sailors. It often happened that the English officers when 
searching American vessels would claim that American 
sailors were Englishmen, and as a result many native-born 
American citizens were forced on board British vessels 
and compelled to serve in the British navy. 

461. The Jay Treaty. — The whole attitude of the Eng- 
lish government toward the United States during this pe- 
riod was one of insult and humiliation. Congress and the 
people were about ready to go to war with England. Wash- 
ington felt that a war at that time might be very serious 
to the new nation, and hence decided to make one more at- 
tempt to settle the various questions in dispute peacefully. 
He appointed John Jay, who was then Chief Justice of the 



364 National Growth 

United States, a special minister to England, and instructed 
him to proceed to London and to arrange a treaty with the 
English government if possible. A treaty was prepared in 
1794. It did not properly protect the interests and dignity 
of the United States. England refused to give up the 
right to search American vessels for British sailors, and by 
the terms of the treaty American commerce would continue 
to suffer. The treaty settled many questions, however, and 
Washington thought it better to accept it than to go to 
war. He therefore recommended that the Senate ratify 
it, which that body did in 1795 by a very close vote. When 
the terms of the treaty became public, the people and 
the press denounced Washington and Jay most severely. 
Washington felt very much hurt at the attacks on his 
character, and declared that the language used by some 
of the papers in these attacks " could scarcely be applied 
to a Nero, to a notorious defaulter, or even to a common 
pickpocket." The treaty was certainly bad for the inter- 
ests of the Americans and for the dignity of the young 
nation, and could prove but a temporary settlement of the 
troubles. But it was wise, perhaps, to adopt the treaty 
and thus to postpone the war until the United States was 
better prepared. 

462. Trouble with France. — One result of the Jay Treaty 
was to increase the feeling in France against the United 
States. By the treaty which the United States made with 
France after the surrender of Burgoyne in 1778, each 
agreed to assist the other if attacked by another nation. 
When war broke out between France and England in 
1793, the French government did not ask the American 
government to comply with the terms of that treaty. 
This was due largely to the fact that the government 
then in power in France had destroyed the government 



The Period of European Interference 365 

which made the treaty with the United States. The 
French people, however, did not like the way Washing- 
ton had treated Genet, although the latter's official con- 
duct toward the United States was very improper. They 
thought that the refusal of the United States to help 
them in their war with England and other nations of 
P2urope was a poor return for the assistance which the 
Americans had received during their Revolution. The 
Jay Treaty was valuable to the commerce of England 
and injurious to the commerce of France. When this 
treaty became known in France, it created great indig- 
nation against the United States. The French said that 
the Americans had not only refused to assist them, but 
by this treaty they injured France and assisted Eng- 
land. The feeling in France against the United States 
became so strong that when Pinckney, the new American 
minister to France, arrived in Paris in 1797, the French 
government refused to receive him. 

463. Attempt to bribe American Commissioners. — This 
was a very serious offense to the United States, but Presi- 
dent Adams was anxious to avoid war, and so appointed El- 
bridge Gerry and John Marshall to join Pinckney in Europe. 
These three men were instructed to try to make a treaty 
with France that would preserve peace between the two na- 
tions. When they reached Paris, France was under a form 
of government called the Directory. Instead of receiving 
the American commissioners in the proper way, the Direc- 
tory sent three agents to meet them. These agents told 
the Americans that before they would be received by the 
French government they must, among other things, pay 
about two hundred fifty thousand dollars to certain mem- 
bers of the Directory. This was really asking for a bribe. 
The American commissioners refused to comply with the 



3 66 



National Growth 



request, and reported the entire matter to President Adams. 
In his report to Congress Adams did not give the names 
of the three agents who had asked a bribe of the American 




John Adams 



commissioners for the Directory, but referred to them as 
X, Y, and Z, and hence this affair is sometimes called the 
X, Y, Z Affair. The publication of the report in the 
United States created great indignation. The press and 
the people demanded that war be declared against France 
for the insult which she had offered the nation. 



The Period of European Interference 367 

464. American Preparations for War ; Treaty Negotiated. 

— Congress ordered the rapid building of new war vessels, 
and at once prepared to raise an army. Washington was 
made commander in chief, and Congress was preparing to 
declare war. Fighting had actually begun on the sea. 
Two French vessels were captured, one defeated, and 
many French merchant vessels were either destroyed or 
captured. The determination of the Americans to go to 
war, and this decided success of the American navy, was a 
great surprise to France. As she was at war with nearly 
all the nations of Europe, she could ill afford to engage 
in a war with the United States also. The French gov- 
ernment, therefore, informed the American Minister to 
The Netherlands that it would now be glad to receive 
commissioners from the United States. As Adams was 
very anxious to maintain peace, he appointed three more 
commissioners. Before they reached Paris the Directory 
had been overthrown, and Napoleon was at the head of 
the French government. The commissioners were well 
received, and a treaty was made in 1800 which settled 
everything satisfactorily to both nations. 

465. Beginnings of Political Parties in United States. 

— The Federalist party was the first political party to se- 
cure control of the national government. Among the 
leaders of this party were Washington, Adams, and Hamil- 
ton. The Federalist party had control of the government 
during the two administrations of Washington and the 
administration of Adams. During this period the Anti- 
Federalist or Republican party was opposed to the Feder- 
alist party. Among the leaders of the Republican party 
were Jefferson, Madison, and Monroe. The firm, patriotic 
stand which President Adams and the Federalist party 
took when the French government demanded a bribe of 



368 National Growth 

the American commissioners who had been sent to Paris 
to make a treaty made that party very popular with the 
people. But all this was soon to be changed. Some of 
the speakers and newspapers that supported the Republi- 
can party had denounced the Federalist party and its 
leaders most severely, very much as the speakers and 
newspapers of a party to-day denounce the opposite party. 
Washington had complained bitterly of the personal attacks 
made on him during his two administrations. 

466. Alien Acts. — When the Federalist party found 
itself very popular with the people as a result of the firm 
stand which it had taken against France, its leaders in 
Congress proceeded to enact several laws which they 
hoped would prevent the speakers and newspapers of the 
Republican party from making these severe criticisms. 
These laws are known as the Alien and Sedition Acts, and 
were passed by Congress in 1798. There were three laws 
passed against aliens or foreigners. The first one made it 
necessary for an alien to live in the United States fourteen 
years before he could become an American citizen, whereas 
before the time required was but five years ; the second one 
gave the President the power to send out of the United 
States any alien whom he might deem dangerous to the 
peace and safety of the nation, and if such person returned, 
he might be imprisoned; by the third law against aliens, 
the President might, in time of war, arrest, imprison, and 
deport all natives or subjects of the nation with which the 
United States was at war. 

467. The Sedition Act or law gave the President the 
power to imprison and fine aliens and American citizens 
who should speak or publish, or cause to be spoken or 
published, anything of a seditious or treasonable nature 
against the government, or even anything which would 



The Period of European Interference 369 

tend to defame the government or any of its officers. The 
Sedition Act was aimed at the speakers and newspapers 
of the Republican party, and this was also true of the Alien 
Acts, because many of the Republican speakers and edi- 
tors of Republican papers were foreign-born and had not 
yet become American citizens. No attempt was ever made 
to enforce the last two of the Alien Acts, but a few were 
imprisoned and fined under the Sedition Act. These laws 
created a storm of indignation against the Federalist party. 
All of these laws except the first Alien Act expired in 
1 801. Their passage marks the first and last attempt of 
the national government to interfere with the freedom of 
speech and the liberty of the press. 

468. The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. — One of 
the important results of the Alien and Sedition Acts was 
the passage of certain resolutions by the legislatures of 
Virginia and Kentucky. These resolutions are known as 
the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, those of Virginia 
being passed in 1798 and those of Kentucky in 1799. 
The Kentucky resolutions were written by Jefferson, 
and the Virginia resolutions by Madison. Jefferson and 
Madison saw that the passage of the Alien and Sedition 
Acts was an attempt on the part of the leaders of the 
Federalist party to injure the Republican party, and they 
hoped that the passage of resolutions against these laws 
by the legislatures of the different states would create 
among the people a strong feeling against the Federalist 
party. The Virginia and Kentucky resolutions declared 
that the Constitution of the United States is simply a con- 
tract between the different states, and that the national 
government can pass no law unless it is given power in 
the contract — that is, the Constitution — to pass such law. 
Of course if Congress passes a law which the Constitution 



370 National Growth 

does not give it power to pass, that law is unconstitutional, 
and the Supreme Court of the United States can declare 
it null and void ; but the Kentucky resolutions declared 
that each state had the power to declare a national law 
unconstitutional and to set it aside, while the Virginia reso- 
lutions declared that all the states acting together could 
do this. If the principles advocated by either set of these 
resolutions had been carried out, it would have taken away 
from the Supreme Court the power granted it by the Con- 
stitution and would thus, in substance at least, have been 
a violation of that document. The legislatures of the 
northern states condemned the resolutions and they re- 
ceived no support from the legislatures of the other south- 
ern states. The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions are 
of great importance because they were the first definite 
statement of the doctrine of state rights as opposed 
to national sovereignty. Jefferson and Madison, very 
likely, never intended that the principles stated in these 
resolutions should be carried out in practice, but had them 
passed for the purpose of checking Congress in its tend- 
ency to pass laws which were not constitutional, and 
especially for the purpose of calling the attention of the 
people to the Alien and Sedition Acts in the hope that 
the Federalist party might be injured. In this respect 
the resolutions were a success. 

469. Commercial Importance of the Mississippi. — Most 
of the goods exported and imported by the people who 
lived between the Alleghanies and the Mississippi were 
sent to Europe and to the eastern states down the 
Mississippi River by way of New Orleans. In order that 
the Americans might export goods by the way of the 
Mississippi, it was necessary for them to have some place 
at the mouth of the river near New Orleans where the 



The Period of European Interference 371 

goods could be unloaded from the river boats and placed 
on the ocean vessels, and in importing goods it was also 
necessary to have some such place in order that they might 
be transferred from the ocean vessels to the river boats. 
The United States did not own the territory on either side 
of the mouth of the Mississippi, and the American settlers 
in the Mississippi Valley, therefore, could not export and 
import goods by way of the Mississippi unless the nation 
to which the land at the mouth of the river belonged 
granted to the United States permission for Americans to 
load and unload goods on the banks of the Mississippi 
within the reach of ocean vessels. The territory of 
Louisiana, which included the territory on both sides of 
the mouth of the Mississippi, had belonged to Spain since 

I763- 
470. The Right of Deposit; France acquires Louisiana. — 

In 1795 Spain, in a treaty made with the United States, 
granted to the Americans the right to load and unload 
goods at certain places in her territory on the banks of 
the Mississippi, that were within reach of ocean vessels. 
This right which Spain granted to the United States is 
known as the Right of Deposit. To the settlers west of 
the Alleghanies it was a most important right, because 
without it their commerce would be almost ruined. So 
long as Louisiana belonged to Spain, the Americans had 
little to fear, because Spain was a weak nation, and if she 
did not grant the Westerners the proper rights regarding 
commerce, the territory could be taken from her by force 
of arms. This was soon to be changed, however, for by a 
treaty made in 1800 Spain ceded all of Louisiana to France, 
but this treaty was not made public until two years later. 
The people of the United States, and especially those of 
the West, became thoroughly alarmed when they learned 



372 National Growth 

that France had secured this territory. France, under the 
control of Napoleon, had become a great and aggressive 
nation. She might establish a great empire in the New 
World, and might seriously interfere with the development 
of the United States. All thoughtful American states- 
men saw that the United States, sooner or later, would be 
compelled to go to war with France if the latter continued 
to hold Louisiana. Jefferson, who became President on 
March 4, 1801, at the end of Adams's term, was one of 
those who saw this plainly. Although he loved peace and 
had always been friendly to the French, he at once de- 
cided to make an alliance with England if necessary, and 
to join her in a war against France. Soon after it became 
known in America that France had secured Louisiana, and 
just before its final transfer, the Spanish governor at New 
Orleans denied to the Americans the " Right of Deposit." 
The people of the West at once determined that the only 
outlet for their foreign trade should not be closed. They 
threatened to march to New Orleans and take possession 
of the territory along the Mississippi. If the government 
would not protect them, they threatened to ask England 
for protection. It thus became necessary for the govern- 
ment to do something at once. 

471. Purchase of the Territory. — Jefferson was very anx- 
ious to settle the matter peaceably if possible, and for this 
purpose he sent Monroe to France with instructions to 
join *he American Minister in Paris, and to try to buy 
the territory lying along the east bank of the Mississippi 
from the territory of the United States to the Gulf of 
Mexico. Napoleon at first refused to sell, but the failure 
of a French expedition to San Domingo, and the almost 
certain renewal of war with England, caused him to 
change his mind. He soon offered to sell to the United 




Thomas Jefferson 



373 



374 National Growth 

States not only the land at the mouth of the Mississippi, 
but the whole of Louisiana. He was probably afraid 
that England might get possession of this territory, 
and if France must lose it, he preferred that it should 
belong to the Americans. Its sale and transfer to the 
United States took place in 1803. The jDrice paid for 
this rich and valuable domain was only fifteen million 
dollars. 

472. Conditions in Europe, 1803-1815. — From 1803 to 
181 5 England and France were engaged in war with each 
other almost continuously. In fact, during most of this 
time, France was at war with nearly all the other nations 
of Europe. In 1804 Napoleon became Emperor of France, 
and thus came to an end the French Revolution, which 
began in 1789, the year in which Washington was first 
elected President. Napoleon soon defeated the armies 
of Spain, Italy, Germany, Austria, and Russia. With 
the exception of Russia he practically controlled all of 
these nations, and Russia was forced to comply with 
many of his wishes. England was the only nation in 
Europe that successfully opposed the arbitrary will and 
the unjust, unsafe, and despotic ambitions of Napoleon. 
England controlled the seas, and was therefore secure 
from invasion ; but she was not in condition to land 
troops in France and attack Napoleon on land with 
much hope of success. The great struggle between 
England and Napoleon during the years from. 1803 to 
1 812 involved every civilized nation of importance except 
the United States, and in 18 12 the United States went to 
war with England because of conditions growing out of 
this great European war. She should have gone to war 
with either France or England a long time before this, 
because of the insults and humiliation which France and 



The Period of European Interference 375 

England heaped upon the United States during the 
greater part of this period. 

473. Decrees and Orders in Council ; the Blockade Ques- 
tion. — As France could not fight England on the seas, and 
as England could not fight France on land, each tried to 
injure the other by destroying her commerce. The English 
government, by proclamations called " Orders in Council," 
declared all the ports of France and those ports of the rest 
of Europe which France controlled, in a state of blockade. 
Napoleon, by proclamations called " Decrees," declared all 
the ports of England in a state of blockade. The United 
States has always maintained that a port is not blockaded 
unless war vessels are actually present at that port and 
actually blockade it. France and England did not actually 
blockade the ports which they declared blockaded, and the 
Americans therefore claimed the right to trade with all the 
nations of Europe. Both France and England denied to 
the Americans the right to do this, and both at once began 
to capture and destroy American merchant vessels. 

474. American Commerce Injured ; the Right of Search. 
— This resulted in a great injury to American commerce, 
vessels and goods worth many millions of dollars being 
either captured or destroyed. English war vessels would 
wait just outside of American ports and capture Ameri- 
can vessels before they had scarcely started for Europe. 
In addition to these insults England was stopping and 
searching more American vessels and impressing more 
American citizens into the British navy than ever before. 
In 1807 the British war ship Leopard even fired upon the 
American war ship Chesapeake, and compelled her com- 
mander to surrender three American citizens and one 
British subject, all of whom were forced on board the 
British vessel and into the service of the English navy.. 



376 National Growth 

For this direct insult to the American people and their 
government, the English government apologized, but flatly 
refused to give up its claim to the right to search Ameri- 
can vessels. This attack on the Chesapeake created great 
excitement and indignation in the United States. Four 
years later, in May, 181 1, which was a little more than 
one year before war broke out between England and the 
United States, the American war vessel President defeated 
the English war vessel Little Belt. This was considered 
by the Americans as a fair offset to the Chesapeake inci- 
dent. 

475. Remedy for National Insults and Injury to Com- 
mjree. — Americans cannot study this period of their his- 
tory without shame and humiliation. The United States 
should have declared war against either England or France 
when those nations began to capture and destroy Ameri- 
can vessels. It would have been better, perhaps, to 
have attacked England instead of France, because of 
these two nations England alone had territory of im- 
portance in North America which the armies of the 
United States could have invaded, and she alone was 
guilty of searching American vessels and impressing 
American seamen. There seems no good reason why 
these insults should have been endured. The United 
States at that time could have raised, drilled, and thor- 
oughly equipped an army of more than one hundred 
thousand, and could have built a navy of at least fifty first- 
class vessels. With such an army and navy the United 
States, very likely, could have taken Canada, and have 
seriously injured the English navy, because her war with 
Napoleon required much of England's attention and re- 
sources. Jefferson, instead of building up the army and 
navy of the nation, loved peace so well and was so afraid 



The Period of European Interference 377 

of a national debt that he reduced the navy from twenty- 
seven vessels in commission for service to seven, stopped 
all construction of new vessels, and reduced the army 
about one half. 

476. Embargo and Enforcement Acts. — For the purpose 
of compelling France and England to stop the destruction 
of American commerce, Jefferson, instead of preparing for 
war, induced Congress to pass what is known as the Em- 
bargo Act. This law forbade American vessels to leave 
American ports except to trade with other American ports. 
If obeyed, this law would have destroyed all trade with for- 
eign nations. In order to enforce the Embargo Act, a law 
known as the Enforcement Act was passed. This law 
laid heavy restrictions on the coastwise trade of the United 
States and created bitter opposition, especially in New 
England, where commerce was the principal industry. 
The Embargo Act was ruining the commerce of the United 
States, and was doing but very little damage to either Eng- 
land or France. It seemed to amuse Napoleon, who said 
that by destroying American merchant vessels he was 
assisting Jefferson to enforce the laws of the United States, 
because the Embargo Act forbade American vessels to 
leave American ports. 

477. Non-intercourse Acts. — In February, 1809, just be- 
fore the close of Jefferson's second administration, the Em- 
bargo Act was repealed, and another law, known as the 
Non-intercourse Act, was passed by Congress. This act 
forbade trade with France and England and the' nations 
which they controlled, but permitted it with the rest of the 
world. American commerce at once began to prosper, 
although the French and English destroyed many of our 
vessels. Madison, who became President in March, 1809, 
like Jefferson loved peace, and was not inclined to go to 



378 



National Growth 



war in order to put a stop to the insulting conduct of these 
two nations. But the new Congress which met in Decem- 
ber, 1811, was determined to bring the period of humilia- 
tion to an end by declaring war against either France or 
England. 

478. The New National Leaders. — Among the members 
of the Congress which met in December, 181 1, were many 

who were enter- 
ing the national 
legislature for 
the first time. 
Henry Clay from 
Kentucky and 
John C. Calhoun 
from South Car- 
olina were two 
of these new 
men. They and 
Webster, who 
entered Con- 
gress two years 
later from New 
Hampshire, were 
men of great 
ability and were 
closely con- 
nected with the 
political history 
of the United 
States through 
the next forty years. Very few of the statesmen who con- 
trolled affairs during the Revolution, and for a quarter of 
a century after, were now members of the national legisla- 




Daniel Webster 



The Period of European Interference 379 

ture. Statesmen of a younger generation had come into 
power. They represented the young and rising democracy 
of America, and especially of the West. They were full 
of hope and strength, and believed in the future great- 
ness of the nation. The first thing which they determined 
to do was to compel Europe to treat the United States with 
proper respect and consideration. 

479. Declaration of War against England. — Under the 
leadership of these new men, Congress began to make prep- 
arations for war, and in June, 18 12, declared war against 
England. Although Madison desired peace, he signed the 
Declaration. The main causes of the war, of course, were 
the attacks on American commerce and the impressment 
of American sailors under the pretext that they were de- 
serters from the English navy. In addition to these in- 
sults, which, as already seen, England had been offering 
the United States for a number of years, the Americans 
had good reasons to suspect that the English were in- 
ducing the Indians to attack the frontier settlements. 
When England saw that the United States was at last in 
earnest, she indicated a desire to settle the matter peace- 
ably, but it was then too late. 

480. The American Army and Navy. — During the prog- 
ress of the War of 1812 the Americans suffered the results 
of the neglect with which Jefferson, during his two terms 
of office, and Madison, during his first term, had treated 
the army and navy of the United States. The Constitu- 
tion gives Congress the real control of these matters, 
and it therefore deserves equal blame for carrying out 
the policy of Jefferson and Madison during this period. 
When war was declared, the army and navy could not 
have been in much worse condition. The army con- 
sisted of a few thousand men, and they were scattered 



380 National Growth 

along the frontier to protect the settlers against Indian 
attacks. The navy consisted of fewer than twenty vessels, 
and fewer than six of these were first-class battle ships. 
There were more than a thousand vessels in the British 
navy, and of this number more than two hundred were 
among the best battle ships in the world. In addition 
to having no army at the beginning of the war, the 
generals selected to organize an army and to conduct 
the campaign were not, as a rule, able, energetic, and 
determined men. To make matters still worse, many of 
the Federalists, and especially those of New England, 
were opposed to the war and did much to hamper the 
government. The governors of most of the New Eng- 
land states refused to send the state troops outside of their 
states. Under all these adverse conditions there was little 
hope that the American armies would be successful, and 
the war on land was in the main a failure. 

481. Campaign of 1812 against Canada ; American Disas- 
ters. — The Americans planned to invade Canada during 
18 12. One army under Hull was to enter Canada at De- 
troit; one under Van Rensselaer was to enter at Queens- 
town just south of Lake Ontario; a third under Dearborn 
was to go down Lake Champlain and advance on Montreal. 
The armies under Hull and Van Rensselaer were to unite 
and march on Montreal, and after the capture of that place 
the three armies were to take Quebec and complete the 
conquest of Canada. These three armies together con- 
sisted of fewer than fifteen thousand men, and they were 
poorly drilled and not very well commanded. Thus the 
Americans, with a mere handful of men, were undertaking 
the conquest of Canada, a task for which they should have 
had an army of about a hundred thousand, and it should 
have been well drilled, well equipped, and under the com- 



The Period of European Interference 381 

mand of able generals. Hull surrendered Detroit and the 
territory of Michigan without even fighting a battle. For 
this he was tried and sentenced to death, but was pardoned 
by the President. A small part of the army under Van 
Rensselaer crossed the Niagara and at first defeated the 
British ; but as the larger part of the American army 
refused to leave the territory of the United States, the 
American soldiers who crossed were finally defeated and 
captured. The army under Dearborn did not leave the 
state of New York. The first year of the war on land was 
thus a complete failure for the Americans. 

482. Perry's Victory. — During the year 181 3 the Amer- 
icans regained what they had lost by Hull's surrender. 
This was due mainly to Perry's victory on Lake Erie. 
The British had a small fleet on that lake. In one of the 
protected inlets of the lake, Perry built a small fleet, got it 
safely across the bar into Lake Erie proper, and completely 
defeated the English fleet. This was one of the most bril- 
liant victories of the war, and was due to the ability of 
Perry, who afterward became a commodore in the regular 
navy. 

483. Battle of the Thames ; Death of Tecumseh. — With 
Lake Erie under the control of Perry, Harrison, who now 
had command of the American army in the Northwest Ter- 
ritory, was able to attack the British and their Indian allies 
under Procter and Tecumseh. Kentucky sent about forty- 
five hundred men to Harrison, who then had an army of 
about six thousand. Perry transferred the Americans 
across Lake Erie. At a point on the Thames River, just 
southeast of Lake Huron, the British and Indian army was 
completely destroyed. Procter escaped, but Tecumseh was 
killed. Tecumseh was an Indian warrior of great ability 
and noble character. Before the war broke out he had 



3«2 



National Growth 



tried to unite all the western Indian tribes so as to prevent 
the further advance of the whites ; but at the battle of 
Tippecanoe, in the fall of 1811, Harrison had completely 
defeated the Indians. The death of Tecumseh put a stop 







'& fcL'Xi^l 




HRN^p ^RBC ^Npp*^| 




HE; " M 




■nyir^i JM 






flH.' ' "^9W 




-- f. % 




| . Jk -MA 



William Henry Harrison 



to the Indian attacks on the northwestern frontier, and the 
destruction of Procter's army ended the fighting in the 
Northwest Territory. No other land battles of importance 
occurred during the year 181 3. 



The Period of European Interference 383 

484. Battles on Land in 1814 ; Chippewa and Lundy's 
Lane. — The principal events of the war on land during the 
year i8i4were the battles of Chippewa and Lundy's Lane 
in Canada, just west of the Niagara River between Lakes 
Erie and Ontario ; the invasion of New York ; and the in- 
vasion of Maryland and the burning of the public buildings 
at Washington. The American army in the vicinity of the 
Niagara River consisted of about thirty-five thousand men 
and was under the command of General Brown, with Scott 
and Ripley next in command. These three young men 
were among the ablest generals that had command of an 
American army during the war. They defeated the British 
at the battle of Chippewa, and twenty days later held their 
own in a bloody night battle at Lundy's Lane. They re- 
pulsed the British attack on Fort Erie, and while they could 
not invade Canada with their small army, they prevented 
the British from invading the United States at this point. 

485. Macdonough's Victory on Lake Champlain. — The 
attempt of the British to invade New York by way of Lake 
Champlain resulted in failure. Commodore Macdonough, 
with a small American fleet, destroyed a small British fleet 
on "that lake. This victory was quite important and was 
due to the genius and ability of Macdonough. The British 
were preparing to invade New York with a veteran army 
of at least ten thousand men ; but when they lost control 
of Lake Champlain, they withdrew after the small battle of 
Plattsburg, which took place at a point on the west shore 

"of the lake just south of the Canadian line. 

486. The Capture of Washington. — In August a British 
army, consisting of some four thousand veterans under 
the command of General Ross, sailed up the Chesapeake, 
landed at Benedict on the Patuxent River, and began its 
advance on the city of Washington. Although this attack 



384 National Growth 

was expected, no preparations had been made for the de- 
fense of the city except to collect a force of six thousand 
militia. The two armies met at Bladensburg, a short dis- 
tance from Washington. The larger part of the American 
army fled when the battle first began. Four hundred 
American marines fought bravely, but they were soon 
either killed, captured, or forced to retreat. The British 
entered Washington and burned the Capitol and other 
public buildings. This was a useless and barbarous de- 
struction of public buildings and valuable records, and 
thoughtful Englishmen have always denounced it as such. 
General Ross next attempted to capture Baltimore, but he 
was killed and his army forced to retreat. This ended the 
operations on land during the year 18 14. 

487. Battle of New Orleans, 1815. — There was but one 
more land battle fought during the war. That was the 
battle of New Orleans, and it took place on January 8, 
181 5, just fifteen days after the treaty of peace had been 
signed at the village of Ghent in Belgium. England had 
determined to secure the territory of Louisiana, and for 
this purpose had decided to capture New Orleans. Europe 
had completely defeated Napoleon and had compelled him 
to leave France. This gave England a chance to send to 
America her veteran soldiers who had been fighting Napo- 
leon. A fleet of fifty vessels, carrying about twelve thousand 
of these veterans, sailed for America in the autumn of 18 14 
for the purpose of capturing New Orleans and securing 
Louisiana. General Jackson had command of the army 
at New Orleans, and it was soon to be seen that the cap- 
ture of that city would not be accomplished as was the 
capture of the city of Washington. Jackson placed New 
Orleans under martial law, and pressed every available 
man, horse, and mule into service. By working night and 



The Period of European Interference 385 

day he succeeded in intrenching his army a few miles below 
the city before the British, under the veteran general Paken- 
ham, were ready for the attack. The British advanced to 
the attack early in the morning of January 8 and were 
defeated with a loss of more than two thousand, while 
the total American loss was only seventy-one. Among the 




The Battle of New Orleans 



killed was the brave Pakenham. The British gave up the 
attempt to capture New Orleans, embarked on their ves- 
sels, and sailed away. This was the greatest as well as the 
last land battle of the war. It indicates what might have 
been the result along the Canadian border had a general 
of Jackson's ability and determination been in charge of 
affairs. 

488. Splendid Work of the Navy. — While the American 
navy, consisting of fewer than twenty vessels, had no chance 

ZQ 



386 National Growth 

whatever of final success in a contest with the British navy 
of more than a thousand vessels, the work which it did was 
in striking contrast with that of the army, and remains a 
source of pride to the nation. During the year 18 12, five 
vessels of the British navy were defeated and captured 
without the loss of an American vessel. During the year 
1 81 3 the British captured six or seven American vessels, 
which together carried about a hundred guns ; but during 
this same year the Americans captured twenty British war 
vessels, which together carried about three hundred and 
fifty guns. The last naval battle, which was the last 
engagement of the war, was fought in February, 181 5, more 
than a month after the treaty of peace had been signed. 
In this last sea battle, as was the case in the last land 
battle, the Americans won a decisive victory. The United 
States vessel Constitution (nicknamed ^' Old Ironsides") 
captured two British vessels. As was to be expected, the 
large British navy finally succeeded in destroying most of 
the few American war vessels and in blockading most of 
the harbors of the United States. But in a battle between 
a British and an American vessel of about equal size, the 
British vessel was usually defeated and captured. Eng- 
land had not been thus defeated on the ocean for more 
than one hundred and fifty years, and the splendid suc- 
cesses of the little American navy did more to secure for 
the United States the respect of England and the rest of 
Europe than did the war on land. 

489. The American Privateers, however, did more real 
damage to the English than did the American navy. A 
privateer is a vessel owned by a private citizen and given 
permission by the government to destroy the commerce of 
the enemy. During the War of 18 12 the United States 
licensed more than two hundred privateers, which captured 



The Period of European Interference 387 

or destroyed more than two thousand merchant vessels and 
secured goods worth many millions of dollars. They even 
took some prizes along the coast of England. One of them 
captured a town on the coast of Scotland and destroyed the 
vessels in the harbor. This great damage to English com- 
merce helped to hasten the end of the war, as it induced 
the English merchants to urge their government to make 
peace. 

490. Treaty of Ghent ; Results of the War. — As has 
already been stated, the treaty of peace was signed at 
Ghent in Belgium on December 24, 18 14. It provided 
for the restoration of the conquests of both parties, and 
arranged for the settlement of boundary disputes and other 
questions. The causes of the war were not mentioned in 
the treaty; but while these questions were not mentioned, 
the war really secured the commercial independence of the 
United States. Never since then has any nation interfered 
with American commerce or attempted the impressment of 
American seamen. The restrictions on commerce during 
the war caused the birth of American factories by com- 
pelling the people, and especially those in the North, to 
invest their money in manufacturing rather than com- 
merce, and compelling the people to buy manufactured 
goods which were made in home factories. The war also 
did much to unify the nation, in spite of the opposition of 
the Federalists. It made the national government stronger 
by compelling a broad interpretation of the Constitution. 
It made the nation independent of Europe in many ways, 
and tended to make it independent of its own colonial con- 
ditions and traditions. From this time on there was a 
much stronger national feeling among the people. 

491. Opposition of New England to Embargo Policy and 
to the War of 181 2. — As one of the principal industries of 



388 National Growth 

New England was foreign commerce, the embargo and 
non-importation policy of Jefferson, and especially the En- 
forcement Act which provided drastic measures for the 
enforcement of this policy, greatly injured the business 
interests of that section. The people of New England 
soon became strongly opposed to these laws because of 
this great injury to commerce. In 1809 the legislature of 
Massachusetts passed resolutions which in spirit were much 
the same as the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. The 
passage of these resolutions was due partly to the fact that 
New England was strongly Federalist, and was vigorously 
opposed to Jefferson and the principles of the Republican 
party. The people of this section were also inclined to be 
friendly with England because of commercial relations with 
that nation, and were therefore opposed to the War of 181 2, 
which they referred to as " Mr. Madison's war," although 
Madison desired peace and signed the declaration of war 
because of the firm stand Congress had taken in the matter. 
As the war progressed, New England became still more 
opposed to it, and from a number of things which took 
place it seems quite probable that her leaders were con- 
templating some kind of armed resistance to the national 
government. 

492. Hartford Convention. — -In 18 14 delegates from the 
various New England states met in convention at Hartford, 
Connecticut, to consider plans for unity of action on the 
part of New England. This convention held its meet- 
ings behind closed doors, and passed resolutions declaring, 
among other things, that when the Constitution was violated 
by acts of Congress, it became the duty of a state to 
oppose the enforcement of such laws. The convention 
requested that a part of the United States revenues col- 
lected in New England be given to the states of that 



The Period of European Interference 389 

section for their defense. Commissioners were sent to 
Congress bearing these and other resolutions of similar 
nature, but peace having been declared before they reached 
Washington they at once dropped the entire matter. The 
principles which were set forth in the resolutions passed 
by the Hartford convention were much stronger than those 
contained in the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. Had 
they been carried out, these principles would have prac- 
tically destroyed the national government. 

493. The Purchase of Florida. — When the United States 
bought Louisiana, she claimed that West Florida was part 
of it, but Spain maintained the contrary. In 18 10 the 
Americans took possession of that part of West Florida 
that bordered on the Mississippi. Spain protested against 
this action, but her war with Napoleon made it impossible 
for her to do anything. She could not properly govern the 
rest of Florida. Criminals and Indians made it their home, 
and would frequently cross over into the United States and 
murder men, women, and children. The Spanish settlers 
encouraged the Indians in Florida, and also those in the 
United States just across the border, to do these things. 
In 18 18 the government sent General Jackson south with 
orders to stop the Indian attacks on the settlements along 
the frontier of Georgia. He defeated the Indians, pur- 
sued them across the border into Florida, captured the 
Spanish towns of St. Marks and Pensacola, and hanged 
two Englishmen whom he accused of assisting the Indians. 
This invasion at once made trouble, which resulted in 
Spain's selling all of Florida to the United States in 18 19. 
In return the United States gave up all claim to Texas. 
The price paid for Florida was five million dollars. 

494. Overthrow of Napoleon ; the Holy Alliance. — In 
181 5 Europe completely defeated Napoleon, forced him 



390 National Growth 

to leave France as a prisoner, and restored the old line of 
kings to the French throne. During this same year 
the leading nations of Europe, with the exception of Eng- 
land, formed what they called the Holy Alliance. The 
French Revolution had greatly alarmed the kings and 
emperors of the various nations of Europe, and this Holy 
Alliance was an agreement made by these monarchs to 
assist one another in case the people of a nation which 
any one of them ruled attempted to revolt, and to secure 
more power in making laws and controlling the govern- 
ment. Among the first acts of the Holy Alliance was the 
forcible suppression of liberal government in Spain and 
the making of the king of that nation an absolute mon- 
arch. This was done in 1822. Between 1810 and 1822 
all of the Spanish-American colonies in North and South 
America, taking advantage of the weakened condition of 
Spain, threw off Spanish authority and established inde- 
pendent republics. These republics included Mexico and 
all of South America save Brazil, which still belonged to 
Portugal. After the Holy Alliance had made the king 
of Spain an absolute monarch, he asked it to help him to 
regain his control over these Spanish-American republics. 
495. Attitude of United States. — Both the English and 
the American people were opposed to this, and the British 
government proposed to the government of the United 
States that they combine against the intended action of 
the Holy Alliance. The United States government de- 
clined to act in concert with Great Britain, but it soon 
formally recognized the independence of all these Spanish- 
American republics. A short time before this the Czar 
of Russia had issued a decree claiming all the Pacific coast 
of North America from Alaska down to the 51st parallel, 
and forbidding foreign vessels to approach within one 



The Period ,of European Interference 391 

hundred miles of the shore. It was her evident intention 
to extend her influence southward and to shut out the 
United States from the Pacific coast. This action of 
Russia's made it look very much as though the Holy 
Alliance had made a deliberate plan to secure as much 
territory in the New World as possible. 

496. The Monroe Doctrine Enunciated. — The question 
at once became very important to the United States. In 
1822 John Quincy 
Adams, who was 
then Secretary of 
State, made a 
strong protest to 
Russia against her 
action on the Pa- 
cific coast, and 
stated that the na- 
tions of Europe 
had no right to 
plant any more 
colonies in either 
North or South 
America. Then 
followed the pro- 
posal of the Holy 

Alliance to assist 

o 1 , Tames Monroe 

Spain to subdue J 

her Spanish-American colonies. After careful consideration 

Adams prepared a statement that gave the position which 

he thought the United States should assume in regard to 

the entire matter. In December, 1823, President Monroe, 

in his annual message to Congress, made the statement 

prepared by Adams a part of his message. This state- 




392 National Growth 

ment has ever since been known as the Monroe Doctrine, 

and in substance is as follows : — 

i. European nations will not be permitted to establish any 

new colonies in America or to add any more territory 

to those already existing. 
2. European nations will not be permitted to interfere with 

the internal affairs of American republics. 
End of the Period of European Interference. — The state- 
ment of the Monroe Doctrine in the President's message 
brought this period to an end. England at once gave the 
other leading nations of Europe to understand that in so 
far as the Spanish-American republics were concerned, 
she would help the United States to enforce the Monroe 
Doctrine. The firm attitude of the American government, 
and the quiet support of that attitude by the English gov- 
ernment, caused the Holy Alliance to give up all its plans 
regarding America. In 1824 Russia made a treaty with 
the United States which fixed the parallel 54° 40' as the 
southern boundary of Russian territory on the Pacific 
coast. Never since has the United States permitted any 
European nation to secure additional territory in either 
North or South America. As has already been seen, the 
United States in 1793, under the firm and wise direction of 
Washington, established the great principle of American 
neutrality in European affairs. After Europe had inter- 
fered in the affairs of the United States for more than 
thirty years, driving her to war with England and almost 
to war with France, Monroe, by his annual message in 1823, 
established this doctrine of non-interference by Europe in 
American affairs. Thus after a long struggle the United 
States rid herself of European interference, and the Ameri- 
can people could now devote all their efforts to the great 
home problems then just beginning to press to the front. 



Financial Legislation : The Tariff 393 

FINANCIAL LEGISLATION: THE TARIFF 

497. Financial Condition of the United States on Organi- 
zation of Government. — In the history of the United 
States, during the period which intervened between the 
first election of Washington as President and about 1828, 
the question next in importance to that of European 
interference was the financial or money question. As 
has already been seen, the condition of money and busi- 
ness during the Critical Period was very bad indeed, and 
was one of the main causes that brought about the adoption 
of the new Constitution. When the new government was 
organized, the credit of the national government was almost 
worthless, both at home and in Europe. In London, which 
was the center of the world's money market, a dollar's worth 
of United States bonds could not be sold for twenty-five 
cents. The national treasury was empty, and the national 
debt was about fifty-four million dollars. These were the 
financial conditions that the new government had to face, 
and they were certainly very serious. Before Washington 
took the oath of office, Congress began to try to better these 
conditions. In order to secure money to pay the imme- 
diate expenses of the government, it soon passed a bill 
which imposed a small tax or duty on certain kinds of 
goods which were brought into the United States from 
foreign countries. Washington signed this bill soon after 
he was inaugurated, and thus went into effect the first tariff 
law of the United States. 

498. Hamilton's Financial Measures. — This was but a 
temporary measure, however, and it was for Hamilton, whom 
Washington appointed the first Secretary of the Treasury, 
to propose definite plans for placing the money affairs of the 
government and nation on a firm and safe basis. Hamilton 



394 National Growth 

had rendered a great service to the United States in his 
able fight for the ratification of the Constitution, and he 
was now about to render another great service to his 
country by solving the complex question of its finances in 
a most thorough and satisfactory manner. The complete 
plan which he submitted to Congress consisted of five 
parts. This plan is known as Hamilton's Financial Meas- 
ures, and was as follows : — 
i. A slight increase in the duties laid by the first tariff. 

2. An excise or internal tax to be placed on distilled 

liquors. This law provided that a tax must be paid 
on whisky that was made in the United States and 
placed on the market for sale. 

3. The third part of Hamilton's plan is known as the 

funding of the national debt. By funding is meant 
that Hamilton proposed that the government should 
take up all the old bonds of the United States and all 
the certificates or receipts which had been given in- 
stead of money to many of the old soldiers for their 
services and to many of those who had furnished 
supplies to the army during the Revolution. Those 
who gave old bonds and certificates to the government 
were to receive in their place new United States bonds, 
which were to bear a certain rate of interest until 
paid. Many of the old bonds and certificates were 
not then held by those who had first received them, 
and many of those in whose possession they then 
were had not paid for them more than twenty-five 

. cents on the dollar — that is, one man would buy from 
another one hundred dollars' worth of bonds for 
twenty-five dollars. In order to carry out the promise 
of the old government, Hamilton proposed that the 
new bonds issued should be for the full face value of 




Alexander Hamilton 



395 



396 National Growth 

the old bonds and certificates. This meant that a 
person who held a hundred dollars' worth of old bonds 
or certificates, for which he may have paid but twenty- 
five dollars, would receive a hundred dollars' worth 
of new bonds for which the government would pay 
him one hundred dollars, and pay him interest on this 
amount until it was settled. 

4. The fourth part of Hamilton's plan is known as the 

assumption of state debts. By the assumption of 
' state debts is meant that Hamilton proposed that 
the national government should pay all the debts 
incurred by the various states in support of the 
Revolution. 

5. The fifth part of Hamilton's plan proposed the establish- 

ment of a United States Bank. This bank was to 
have a capital of ten million dollars — that is, it could 
offer for sale ten million dollars' worth of shares. 
A person who bought five hundred dollars' worth of 
these shares, for instance, would own that amount of 
interest in the bank and would receive his proportion 
of whatever money the bank might make. The bank 
was to be managed by private individuals, but the 
government was to own two million dollars' worth of 
the shares and was to have the right to examine into 
its condition at any time in order to be sure that it 
was being conducted honestly. The bank was to have 
the right to establish branch banks in various cities 
and in different parts of the United States. The 
government was to have the right to deposit the 
public money in the proposed United States Bank 
and its branch banks, and could use these banks for 
collecting taxes and paying out money. Hamilton's 
object in establishing the bank was to enable the 



Financial Legislation : The Tariff 397 

government to manage its financial affairs more easily, 
and to give stability throughout the nation to money 
and business matters. 

499. Success of Hamilton's Measures. — Some of Hamil- 
ton's financial measures met with strong opposition in 
Congress, but that body finally passed them, and they 
were all signed by the President. The result of his meas- 
ures was better than Hamilton himself dared hope. The 
credit of the United States was firmly established both 
at home and abroad. It was not long before a dollar's 
worth of United States bonds in London was worth a 
dollar in gold, whereas before a dollar's worth of these 
bonds was worth less than twenty-five cents. One of 
the main objects which Hamilton had in view when he 
prepared his financial measures was to strengthen the 
national government in the minds of the people. The 
assumption of state debts, the United States Bank, and 
the internal tax on whisky had a splendid effect in this 
respect. All these things caused the people to look to 
the national government more, and to the state govern- 
ment less. 

500. Whisky Rebellion. — The tax on whisky met with 
some opposition in some parts of the country. In western 
Pennsylvania some of the people refused to pay this 
tax, and armed themselves for the purpose of resisting 
the federal officers, whose duty it was to collect it. This 
uprising is known as the Whisky Rebellion. Washington 
decided to compel the people of western Pennsylvania 
to obey the law, and for this purpose called upon the 
governors of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Maryland, and 
Virginia to furnish soldiers. Soon an army of fifteen 
thousand was marching through Pennsylvania, but before 
it reached the western part of the state the men who 



398 National Growth 

had gathered for the purpose of resisting the national 
government went home and decided that it would be best 
to obey the law. The firm stand of Washington in this 
matter caused the power of the national government to 
be impressed on the minds of the people in all parts of 
the country. Thus Hamilton's financial plan proved a 
success in almost every respect, and he fully deserves to 
be honored as one of the greatest financiers the United 
States has ever produced. 

501. Jefferson and Gallatin's Financial Measures. — Under 
the administrations of Washington and Adams the income 
of the national government had increased from less than 
three million dollars in 1789 to almost eleven million 
dollars in 1800. But the expenses of the government 
had increased faster than its income, and when Jefferson 
became President in 1800, the national debt amounted 
to almost eighty-three million dollars. Jefferson's policy 
was to reduce the expenses of the government so as to 
reduce the taxes, and at the same time pay off the 
national debt. He appointed Gallatin Secretary of the 
Treasury, and the latter formed plans for carrying out 
the financial ideas of Jefferson. Although the internal 
taxes were repealed, the annual income of the govern- 
ment increased. This was due to the increase in the 
volume of imported goods, which gave the government 
more money from the tariff taxes. Jefferson at the same 
time was reducing expenses in nearly all the departments 
of government. By 1808 the national debt had been 
reduced to forty-five million dollars, and Louisiana had 
been paid for. This was certainly a good record from 
a purely financial point of view, but part of the policy 
which secured it proved to be of far greater injury to 
the nation than a larger debt would have been. 



Financial Legislation : The Tariff 399 

502. Expenditures for Army and Navy. — The great 
increase in the expenses of the government during the 
administrations of Washington and Adams had been for 
the army and navy, and especially for the navy. Jeffer- 
son made his principal reduction in expenses by reducing 
the army one half, and the navy from twenty-seven ships 
in commission for service to seven, and by stopping all 
construction of new vessels. This was done during the 
time that the United States was being insulted and humili- 
ated by both France and England. When the war with 
England did come, the nation suffered one defeat after 
another, largely because of the reduction and neglect of 
the army and navy during the two administrations of 
Jefferson and the first administration of Madison. 

503. The United States Bank and State Banks. — At the 
close of the War of 1812 the national debt had increased 
to almost one hundred and thirty million dollars, and the 
financial affairs of the nation were in a bad condition. 
To some extent this was due to the fact that the United 
States Bank did not exist during the war, when a tried 
and solid financial system was most needed. The charter 
of the bank expired in 181 1, and Congress refused to 
renew it. This action of Congress was due to several 
conditions. When the bank was chartered in 1791, there 
were only four state banks in existence ; when the charter 
expired in 181 1, there were eighty-eight of these state 
banks in existence, and during the next three years the 
number had more than doubled. The state banks, as a 
rule, were opposed to the United States Bank, because 
they hoped to secure its business and the government 
deposits. Some of the states were interested in some of 
their banks in the way that the national government was 
interested in the United States Bank, and for this and other 



400 National Growth 

reasons several of the state legislatures passed resolutions 
against renewing the charter of the United States Bank. 
Many were opposed to renewing the charter because they 
feared the bank's influence as a monopoly, and also as 
a corrupt factor in politics. But the financial affairs of 
the nation became so bad after the war that Congress, in 
1816, in spite of all opposition, renewed the charter of the 
United States Bank for a period of twenty years. The 
next attack on the bank was made by Jackson when he 
became President. 

504. Tariff Question; First Tariff Act in United States. 
— A tariff as used in connection with national legislation 
in the United States is a tax or duty that must be paid 
on goods brought into the country from other nations. 
Congress is the only body in the United States that has 
the power to levy such taxes. One of the main objects 
of a tariff is to obtain the money required to meet the 
expenses of government and to pay off the national debt. 
Another object is to protect home industries. Many believe 
that tariff duties should be so levied as to protect the manu- 
facturing and agricultural interests of the country. This 
means that all kinds of goods that can be produced in the 
United States in quantities large enough or nearly large 
enough to supply the home demand should be required to 
pay a duty if imported so as to secure a better home mar- 
ket for home products and thus increase home production. 
On the other hand, many believe that a protective tariff 
raises the price of goods and products, and benefits only 
those who produce the articles on which an import duty 
is levied. These people, therefore, believe that a tariff 
should be levied for the purpose of revenue only, and that 
tariff duties should be levied only on such articles as are 
used by the wealthier classes. The tariff question has 



Financial Legislation: The Tariff 401 

always been an important question in the United States. 
As already noted, Congress passed the first tariff law in 
1789. The main object of this first tariff law was to secure 
revenue for the new government, but during the debate 
the protective principle was briefly discussed, and the law 
was protective in a small measure. 

505. Growth of the Idea of Protection. — Up to the year 
1 8 16 there was very little change in the tariff policy 
of the United States. While the duties were changed, 
and in many cases increased from time to time, the 
principle of tariff for revenue chiefly remained the same. 
The War of 18 12, however, had aided the growth and 
development of American manufactures, and their pro- 
tection and encouragement by the government became 
a question of more and more importance. This led to the 
passing of a tariff law in 18 16 which had for its express 
purpose the protection of American industries. This 
principle was established still more firmly by the passage 
in 1824 of a still higher protective tariff. There was prac- 
tically no opposition to the tariff policy of the government 
up to the adoption of the principle of protection. Even in 
1 8 16 the opposition was not strong, and the South, acting 
on the advice of Calhoun, gave the principle of protection 
its cordial support. But the opposition to a tariff for the 
protection of home industries soon began to grow, and 
especially was this true in the South. In the northern 
states, and especially in New England where the growth 
of manufactures was becoming more and more rapid, the 
people, as a rule, were in favor of the protective principle, 
but those in New England who were engaged in commerce 
strongly opposed it. In the South the opposition became 
stronger and stronger. The South had remained almost 
entirely agricultural, and had developed no manufacturing 



402 National Growth 

interests of importance. The southern people, therefore, 
thought that they had nothing to gain from the principle 
of protection. As will be seen later, the opposition of the 
South came very nearly leading to serious results during 
Jackson's first administration. 

POLITICAL PARTIES 

506. Theory of Political Parties. — During nearly all the 
time since the foundation of the government to the present, 
there have been two great political parties in the United 
States. The people have been divided into different parties 
because they have had different ideas about things which 
affect the growth and welfare of the nation. If the people 
all had the same ideas about such questions, there would be 
but one political party, although there might be two or 
more men running for the same office. In the latter case, 
however, the division would be based on personal liking, 
and not on a difference of opinion regarding questions and 
great principles which affect the welfare of the nation. It 
is a good thing for the people to have different opinions 
about public questions, and to organize themselves into 
political parties for the purpose of getting control of the 
government and carrying out their opinions by making 
laws. The active public discussion of great public ques- 
tions, which is caused by the contest between the different 
parties, tends to lead to the truth, educates the people, and 
better prepares them for the duties and responsibilities of 
self-government. 

507. Principles causing Formation of First Parties. — 
The first great question which caused the people of the 
United States to divide into political parties was the differ- 
ence of opinion regarding the nature of the new govern- 



Political Parties 403 

ment. Section 8 of Article I of the Constitution, after 
stating the specific powers of Congress, says Congress 
shall have power " To make all laws which shall be neces- 
sary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing 
Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution 
in the Government of the United States, or in any Depart- 
ment or Officer thereof." Many people believed that this 
clause should be loosely construed; that is, it should be 
taken to mean that the new government should exercise 
not only the powers specifically granted to it by the Con- 
stitution, but that it should assume such implied powers 
as might be necessary or even expedient in carrying out 
those powers specifically given to it. For instance : the 
Constitution does not say that Congress has the power to 
establish a United States Bank, but Hamilton insisted that 
this power is implied by the clause given above, because 
such a bank would assist in carrying out the power of taxa- 
tion, — a power which the Constitution specifically gives to 
Congress. Those who believed in this loose construction 
of the Constitution wished to centralize the government, 
and believed that it should be controlled by the well-born, 
well-educated, and wealthier classes. There were many 
people, however, who did not believe that the Constitution 
should be thus loosely construed, or that the government 
should be controlled by the upper classes. They believed 
that Congress should assume only such implied powers as 
are absolutely necessary to carry out the powers specifi- 
cally given to it. They maintained, for instance, that the 
power of Congress to establish the United States Bank is 
not implied in the Constitution. They did not believe that 
the government should be centralized. They had faith 
in the common people, and believed that the affairs of 
government could be safely intrusted to them. As stated 



404 National Growth 

above, this difference of opinion as to how the Constitution 
should be interpreted caused the first division of the peo- 
ple into political parties. Up to the time of the American 
Civil War it was one of the great political questions, and 
was almost constantly before the American people. The 
exact nature of the powers which belong to the national 
government is still an important question, and will remain 
one as long as the Constitution is in force ; but since the 
Civil War it has not been an important political question 
in the sense or way in which it was before that time. 

508. Origin and Rise of Federalist Party. — Those who 
believed that the Constitution should be loosely construed, 
and that the government should be centralized and con- 
trolled by the upper classes, formed themselves into 
what is known as the Federalist party. Among the 
leaders of this party were Washington, Hamilton, and 
John Adams. The Federalist party had control of the 
national government for twelve years. Washington and 
John Adams were the Federalist Presidents, Washington's 
term lasting from 1789 to March 4, 1797, and Adams's term 
from the latter date to March 4, 1801. To this party 
must be given the credit of organizing the government 
upon a sound and safe, but not radical, basis. This was a 
great and very important work, among its more important 
features being the establishment of the principle of Ameri- 
can neutrality in European affairs, and the inauguration 
of Hamilton's financial measures which resulted in firmly 
establishing the financial credit of the nation. The com- 
mon sense and good judgment of Washington, and the 
confidence of the people in his ability and patriotism, 
caused the new national government to become strong 
from the very first, and to win the support and confidence 
of the masses of the people. 



Political Parties 405 

509. Cause of Decline of Federalist Party. — But while 
the Federalist party accomplished a great work, it was 
doomed by its very make-up to early destruction. The 
Federalist leaders, though extremely patriotic, were natu- 
rally aristocratic. In addition to believing that the gov- 
ernment should be controlled by the upper classes, they 
desired to introduce some of the forms and ceremonies 
of the English government. In his official work and 
intercourse, Washington insisted that a certain amount of 
etiquette and ceremony be strictly observed. When Con- 
gress was not in session, he frequently traveled through 
the country in a style very much as a king might have 
traveled. The people loved Washington because he had 
devoted his life, in a very unselfish way, to the service of 
his country, and the value of his work to the nation had 
been much greater than that of any other man. But the 
ideals and ceremonies of the Federalist party were out of 
harmony with the rising democratic spirit of the republic. 
The chief cause of the fall of the party was its theory 
of government by the leaders, instead of by the masses. 
As this theory was not in harmony with growing demo- 
cratic ideas, it made the fall of the party permanent. 
The passage of the Alien and Sedition Laws was an 
attempt to stop the public expression of these ideas, and 
this so aroused the people that at the election for Presi- 
dent in 1800, they elected Jefferson, who was leader of 
the Anti-Federalist party. The opposition of the Fed- 
eralists to the War of 18 12 and their action in the Hart- 
ford convention were the deathblow to their party, which 
had already fallen into popular disfavor for the reasons 
given above. 

510. Anti-Federalist or Republican Party Formed. — 
During the first administration of Washington, those who 



406 National Growth 

believed in a strict construction of the Constitution, and 
that the government should not be centralized nor con- 
trolled by the upper classes, gradually formed themselves 
into what is known as the Anti-Federalist or Republican 
party. Among the leaders of this party were Jefferson, 
Madison, and Monroe. The Republican party made no 
attempt to defeat Washington. He received every vote 
at the first two elections for President, and could have 
been elected the third time had he not positively refused 
to be a candidate. 

511. Chief Principles of Republicans ; Career of Party. 
— When the Federalists had control of the government, 
the leaders of the Republican party claimed that the 
Federalist party was assuming more powers than were 
granted the national government by the Constitution, 
and that the states were being deprived of their rights. 
The Republicans -did not believe in so much etiquette 
and so many ceremonies in connection with the govern- 
ment. They believed that everything should be more 
democratic, and that the national government should 
be careful to do nothing that the Constitution did not 
plainly give it the right to do. The Republican party 
carried the election for President in the autumn of 1800, 
and had control of the national government from March, 
1801, to March, 1829. Jefferson, the leader of the Repub- 
lican party, was President for two terms, 1801 to 1809. 
He was followed by Madison, 1809 to 181 7. 

512. " Era of Good Feeling;" Rise of New Parties. — 
Monroe, who was President from 18 17 to 1825, was a 
Republican in name, but his administration was noted 
for an almost total lack of party feeling, so much so that 
the period covered by his two terms is often called the 
" Era of Good Feeling." John Ouincy Adams was the 



Political Parties 407 

fourth of the Republican Presidents, 1825 to 1829. 
During his administration the party broke up into per- 
sonal factions. It is almost true to say that it did this at 
the end of Monroe's second administration. In the bitter 
personal fight for President in the autumn of 1828, Jackson 
was successful, and during his administration two new par- 
ties were organized, — the Whig party and the Democratic 
party. These two parties will be discussed under that 
period of our history extending from 1828 to i860. 

513. Work of the Republican Party. — The Republican 
party defeated the Federalist party and secured control 
of the government on the strength of promises that in- 
volved two general principles. One was that it would 
abolish the aristocratic etiquette and ceremonies which 
the Federalist party had introduced in connection with 
the official work of the government. The other that it 
would restrict the power of the government to those 
things plainly stated in the Constitution. The promises 
involving the first principle were carried out by the Repub- 
licans. Many of the ceremonies which the Federalists had 
introduced were abolished, and the manner of carrying on 
the government became more democratic and has remained 
so ever since. The second promise which the Republicans 
made, however, was not carried out at all. In fact, they 
gave a much looser construction to the Constitution than the 
Federalists ever dared to give. The purchase of Louisiana 
and the passage of the Embargo Act and the Enforcement 
Act went far beyond anything which the Federalists had 
ever done along this line. It is very doubtful, to say the 
least, whether some things which the national government 
did during Jefferson's and Madison's administrations were 
not a little beyond the powers granted it by the Con- 
stitution. The Federalists were now claiming that the 



408 National Growth 

Republicans were giving too loose a construction to the 
Constitution. The Hartford convention was a protest 
against this, as the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions 
were a protest against the action of the Federalist party 
in this respect. It is interesting to note that ever since 
then the party not in power has made this same charge 
against the party in power. 

GROWTH OF THE NATION 

514. Growth in Territory and Population. — At the close 
of the Revolution, in 1783, the territory of the United 
States extended from the Atlantic to the Mississippi, and 
from Canada to Florida. Of all this vast area of over 
eight hundred thousand square miles, less than three 
hundred thousand were occupied and settled, and of the 
three million inhabitants, the great mass lived east of the 
Appalachian Mountains. At the end of the period of Na- 
tional Growth and European Interference the area of the 
United States had increased — through the acquisition 
of the Louisiana Territory in 1803 and of Florida in 18 19 
— to more than two million square miles, of which six 
hundred thousand were settled. The population had 
reached nearly twelve millions, the increase in the West 
being much more rapid than in the East. Thus in 1828 
the territory of the nation was about two and one half 
times greater than at the close of the Revolution, and the 
population was about four times greater. 

515. Settlement of the West ; Causes. — About the time 
of the French and Indian War, settlers began to move 
westward in search of new homes, chiefly along the Ohio. 
At the close of the Revolution the number of people 
leaving the original thirteen states along the Atlantic 



Settlement of the West 



409 



seaboard, and settling in the country between the Alle- 
ghany Mountains and the Mississippi River, began to 
increase rapidly. This was clue to several causes. Most 
of this western land was cheap, fertile, and well watered, 
and many men, therefore, welcomed the chance to build 
up homes and fortunes in this new country. The gov- 




A Flateoat on the Ohio 

ernment had given portions of this rich land to many of 
the soldiers of the Revolution in payment for their services 
during the war. The bad condition of business during 
the Critical Period was a strong factor in causing many 
people to leave their old homes and seek new homes in 
the West. It has always been true in the history of the 
United States that when there were hard times in the 
East, with lack of business and scarcity of money, there 



410 National Growth 

has been a rush of settlers westward. All these causes 
led to the rapid settling of the West. 

516. Two Great Courses of Westward Migration. — It is 
very important to note that this migration of the people 
was along two different courses, which ran westward in par- 
allel lines from the northern and southern sections of the 
country that bordered on the Atlantic. Those who went 
West from Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, 
South Carolina, and Georgia generally settled in Kentucky, 
Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Missouri, 
and later in Arkansas and Texas; those who went West from 
New Jersey, Pennsylvania, New York, and New England 
settled chiefly in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, and 
Michigan, and later in Kansas, Iowa, and Nebraska. The 
settlers from each section of the eastern states carried with 
them their industrial and social customs. Thus in the 
southern part of the western territory the same industrial 
and social conditions prevailed as in the southern Atlantic 
states, and slavery became established with the settlement 
of the country, while in the northern part of the western 
country the same industrial and social conditions prevailed 
as in the northern Atlantic states, and slavery therefore 
was not established. In the southern part of the western 
country, as in the southern part of the eastern country, 
the topography, climate, and soil tended to make slave 
labor profitable ; while in the northern part of the western 
country, the same as in the northern part of the eastern 
country, topography, climate, and soil tended to make slave 
labor unprofitable. 

517. Formation of New States. — In the organization 
of all the western territory the provisions of the Ordi- 
nance of 1787 in many respects were followed. The 
rapid settlement of the western lands soon led to the 



Internal Improvements 



411 



formation of new states, in aecordance wtth the prov 
sions of this ordinance. The first state earved out of this 
western country was Kentucky. By .828 eleven new 
Ttates had been added to the original thirteen mne of 
hem being in the Mississippi Valley. Thus the mfluence 
of the West had become an important factor in nat.onal 






IW 








JV'v •" 




AN EARLY PIONEER SETTLEMENT IN KENTUCKY 



affairs, and was rapidly becoming a still more important 
factor In character the constitutions of the western states 
were much more democratic than those of the eastern states^ 
This was due largely to the conditions of frontier life, which 
tended to put men on an equal footing with one another, 
and to compel them to rely on their own efforts. 

518 Internal Improvements : Cumberland Road, Erie 
Canal. -The rapid growth of the West and the great in- 



412 



National Growth 



crease in the volume of its commerce made it necessary 
and profitable for both the East and the West to open up 
highways between the two sections. A large part of the 
foreign commerce of the West was carried on by way of 
the Mississippi, but the overland commerce between the 
East and the West was also very important. The ques- 
tion of building roads, bridges, canals, and improving the 
rivers by the aid of the national government was early 




The Erie Canal 



taken up by Congress, and became to some extent a politi- 
cal issue. The first work of this kind undertaken by the 
government was the building of the Cumberland Road 
between the Ohio and the Potomac rivers. Although in- 
ternal improvements of this nature were constantly dis- 
cussed, nothing more was done by the national government 
during this period. Some of the states, however, took up 
the work. New York completed the Erie Canal in 1825, 
and this great highway soon became an important factor 



First Struggle over Slavery 4 1 3 

in building up the commerce of the nation as well as that 
of the state. Other states also built important canals, 
roads, and bridges. 

519. First Struggle over Slavery. — The settlement of 
the West led to the first struggle over slavery. The 
Ordinance of 1787 forever prohibited slavery in the North- 
west Territory, which included the present states of Ohio, 
Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin. But there 
was no national legislation on the question of slavery 
in the territory south of the Ohio between the Missis- 
sippi and the southern Atlantic states, nor in the 
Louisiana Territory, until the passage of the Missouri 
Compromise. In the western territory south of the 
Ohio the people of each state were permitted to settle 
the question for themselves. As the states of Kentucky, 
Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana were 
settled by people from the slaveholding states of the 
East, they also were slaveholding states. Alabama, which 
was the last of this group of five states to come into the 
Union, was admitted in 1819. As Florida was certain to 
be a slave state, the question of slavery in all the country 
east of the Mississippi, and in that part of the state of 
Louisiana west of that river, was settled for the time 
being at least. But the question of slavery in the Louisi- 
ana Territory, except that part included in the state of 
Louisiana, was not settled. The territory of Missouri was 
west of the Mississippi, and was a part of the Louisiana 
Territory. When Missouri, in 18 18, applied for admission 
into the Union, it became necessary for Congress to decide 
whether or not slavery should be permitted to extend into 
the Louisiana Territory. This caused the first struggle over 
slavery since the organization of the new government. 
Slavery had existed in all the states, but the fact that slaves 



414 National Growth 

could not be used with much profit in the North brought 
about the gradual abolition of slavery in New England and 
in nearly all the middle states. The fact that the north- 
ern people were not accustomed to slavery helped to cause 
a moral sentiment to grow up slowly against slavery in the 
North. In the South, on the other hand, slavery had been 
found still more profitable, had increased, and had become 
more firmly rooted in the industrial and social conditions 
than ever. Under all these circumstances the extension of 
slavery into the territory of Louisiana became a question 
of great interest to the entire nation. The whole question 
was settled by a compromise which is known as the Missouri 
Compromise. 

520. Missouri Compromise. — This compromise had its 
origin in the desire of the slaveholding states to pre- 
vent those states in which slavery did not exist from 
securing control of the United States Senate. The north- 
ern states, having a larger population than the south- 
ern states, would always have a majority in the House 
of Representatives. The southern states, knowing this, 
were determined to control as many votes in the Senate 
as the northern states, and thus be in a position to prevent 
any legislation hostile to slavery interest. In order to 
be able to do this, a slave state must be admitted into the 
Union with every free state. Up to 18 18 this plan had 
been followed carefully, and of the twenty-two states then 
forming the Union, eleven were free and eleven were slave. 
To preserve this balance required that the territory included 
in the Louisiana Purchase should be half slave and half 
free. The North was determined that slavery should not 
be permitted to exist in any of this territory, and the South 
was determined that it should. When Missouri applied for 
admission to the Union, her constitution said nothing about 



European Interference and the West 415 

slavery, but it was almost certain that she would be a slave 
state. Her application for admission caused angry discus- 
sions in Congress and among the people generally through- 
out the nation. The House of Representatives would not 
permit Missouri to enter as a slave state, and the Senate 
would not allow slavery to be prohibited. In 1820 Maine 
applied for admission to the Union as a free state. The 
Senate, in which the South had as many votes as the North, 
would not consent to the admission of Maine unless Mis- 
souri was also, allowed to enter. The question was compro- 
mised as follows : — 

1. Maine should be admitted as a free state and Missouri 

as a slave state. 

2. The Louisiana Purchase should be divided by the par- 

allel of 36 30', and in all territory north of this line, 
excepting Missouri, slavery should be forever pro- 
hibited. 

The Missouri Compromise settled the slavery question 
for the time being. It was thought by many that it settled 
the question finally ; but because of the acquisition of new 
territory, and because of the difference in the industrial 
and social conditions of the North and South, compromise 
measures could result only in postponing for some years 
the final conflict. 

521. European Interference, and Growth of the West. — 
At the end of this period, in 1828, the nation as a whole 
was much more united than at the beginning of the period 
in 1789, when the Constitution went into effect. This unit- 
ing or nationalizing of the nation was caused by several 
things. The constant interference with American affairs 
by Europe during the first part of this period tended to 
unite the people. In spite of the opposition of the Fed- 
eralists, the War of 18 12 developed a strong feeling of 



41 6 National Growth 

national unity among the American people. It caused 
them to feel independent of Europe, and to put aside and 
forget many of the customs and conditions which had sur- 
vived since colonial times. All this left the nation united 
and in a condition to develop a true national life. The 
purchase of Louisiana and Florida also tended toward 
national unity. In the purchase and government of this 
territory Congress was forced to make a loose construc- 
tion of the Constitution, and as the Republican party was 
then in power, that party became the champion of the 
nationalizing policy to which it was so strongly opposed 
when the Federalists had control of the government. As 
the Republican party was in power from 1801 to 1829, its 
work in advancing the nationalizing policy was of great 
importance. That which had the most to do in advanc- 
ing the growth of national unity, perhaps, was the rapid 
growth of the West. The men who settled this new coun- 
try did so under the protection and government of the 
nation, and not of the state. The states in which they 
lived had been made states by the national government, 
and in their minds, therefore, the state would be subordi- 
nate to the nation. 

522. Influence of Important Supreme Court Decisions. — 
Another thing that caused the growth of national unity 
was a series of important decisions made by the Supreme 
Court of the United States. These decisions established 
more firmly the authority of the national government, and 
in many cases specifically defined the limits of the state 
governments. Among the more important of these deci- 
sions were : — 
1. McCulloch vs. Maryland. In this case the state of 

Maryland attempted to tax the United States Bank ; 

but the Supreme Court held that the bank could not 



Influence of Slavery 4 T 7 

be thus taxed, because it was in part a national 
institution. 

2. Fletcher vs. Peck. In this case the court held that the 

state of Georgia could not revoke grants of land even 
if they had been obtained by fraud, because such 
action on the part of the state would be a violation 
of contract, which the national Constitution says shall 
not be impaired. 

3. Dartmouth College Case. In this case New Hampshire 

attempted to modify the charter of Dartmouth College. 
The court held that this could not be done, because 
the effect would be to impair the obligation of a 
contract and the modification would therefore be a 
violation of the Constitution. 
523. Influence of Slavery. — The chief influence work- 
ing against the growth of national unity, as a whole, was 
slavery. While not an active factor during this period, 
it was surely though slowly undermining the unity of the 
nation by causing the North and the South to develop 
industrially and socially along different lines. Thus dif- 
ferent interests sprang up in the two sections, and the con- 
ditions which caused the conflict of the following period 
were beginning to shape themselves definitely. The atti- 
tude of the two sections of the country, and the strength 
of slavery in the South, are shown in the Missouri Com- 
promise, which was the first struggle of the long conflict 
that came to dominate all questions and to threaten the 
existence of the nation, and which was ended only by a 
long and bloody civil war. 



41 8 National Growth 

INSTITUTIONAL LIFE 

524. Development in Institutional Life. — During the 
period from the close of the Revolution to 1828, insti- 
tutional life in the United States was gradually chang- 
ing from colonial conditions. The industrial growth of 
the nation along a number of important lines was very 
great. This is seen in the rise of manufactures in the 
New England and the middle states ; in the South settling 
down to even a more strictly agricultural basis ; in the 
great development of commerce between the East and 
the West ; in the marked improvement in means of trans- 
portation and communication which this commerce helped 
to bring about ; and in the many valuable inventions. In 
the institutions of social life and government there was 
a marked growth toward democracy. The aristocratic 
forms, ceremonies, and distinctions based on class were 
gradually dying out except in the South. In religious 
matters a much more liberal spirit gradually developed, 
and there was a distinct improvement along educational 
lines during the latter part of this period. In order to 
understand the importance of these many changes in the 
institutional life of the nation during this period, it is 
necessary to understand the conditions of institutional 
life in the colonies. It is urged, therefore, that the sub- 
ject of " Institutional Life in the Colonies " be read or 
reviewed very carefully • before continuing further the 
study of institutional life for the period now being consid- 
ered. This review is of the utmost importance and should 
not be omitted. 

525. Manufacturing Conditions up to about 1800.— 
During colonial times there were many sawmills and 
gristmills in the New England and the middle states. 



Institutional Life 419 

There were also in these northern states many articles of 
common use made or manufactured by the family. This 
is sometimes called household manufacturing. Among the 
articles thus made were household utensils, clothing, and 
farming implements. Many small shops also were devoted 
to making these things. In Pennsylvania considerable 
iron ore was mined, made into pig iron, and exported. The 
people of the South did not make articles of common use, 
as did the people of the North, but imported all the manu- 
factured goods consumed. From all this it will be seen 
that at the time of the Revolution the South had no manu- 
factures at all, and that while in New England there 
were a large number of things made in many small shops, 
there were no large manufacturing establishments. Up 
to about the year 1800 there had been but very little in- 
crease in manufacturing in the United States; but there 
was soon to be a decided improvement along this line. 
The embargo policy of Jefferson and the War of 18 12 
prevented the importation of manufactured goods. This 
condition of things caused the Americans to engage in 
manufacturing, and by 18 16 a complete change had taken 
place in this industry. 

526. Influence of New Weaving Machinery. — The in- 
crease in the manufacture of cotton goods was especially 
rapid, and a great increase in the manufacture of woolen 
goods soon followed, all of which was due largely to the 
inventions in England of spinning and weaving machin- 
ery. These valuable inventions had been made by Har- 
greaves, Arkwright, Crompton, and Cartwright, between 
1767 and 1785. Improved machinery made the manufac- 
ture of clothing much faster, easier, and cheaper, and 
induced many men in England and America to invest 
their money in this industry. The great difficulty about 



420 



National Growth 



^\. 



1790 was to get cotton enough to supply this new machin- 
ery. It required so much time and labor to separate the 
cotton seed from the cotton fiber that the production of 
cotton in large quantities was very difficult. But this also 
was soon to be changed. 

527. Cotton Gin. — In 1793 Eli Whitney, a New Eng- 
land schoolmaster then living in Georgia, invented a little 

device or machine by the 
use of which one slave 
could separate as much 
cotton seed from the fiber 
in one day as about three 
hundred slaves could by the 
old method. This greatly 
increased the production of 
cotton in the South, and 
gave an ample supply for 
the new machinery, both 
in Europe and America. 

528. Some Leading Manufactures ; Value of American 
Manufactures, 1828. — The rapid growth of cotton and 
woolen manufactures in the United States from about 
1805 to 1822 was due mainly, therefore, to the invention 
of new spinning and weaving machinery, and to the 
non-importation of manufactured goods from Europe, the 
European goods being kept out by the Embargo Acts, 
the War of 1812, and the protective tariff. There was 
also great advance during the latter part of this period in 
the manufacture of iron goods and in the manufacture of 
leather, glass, and paper. In 1800 the amount of money 
invested in manufactures in the New England and the 
middle states was not great, and the number of people 
employed in this industry was not great; but the advance 




The First Cotton Gin 



Institutional Life 421 

was so rapid that by 1828 America produced manufactured 
goods worth about three hundred million dollars, and the 
number of people employed in factories bad increased to 
more than one hundred fifty thousand. 

529. General Conditions of Agriculture. — While the 
North was thus devoting more and more Of its time and 
capital to manufacturing, the South and the great and 
rapidly growing West continued to devote nearly all their 
time to agriculture. The West would naturally do this, 
because as yet it was quite young and had had no 
chance to develop manufactures ; but this was not true 
of the South, because it was as old as the North. This 
condition in the South was due to several things. In 
the first place, manual labor there was performed almost 
entirely by slaves, and slave labor could not be used 
with profit in manufacturing. As manual labor was con- 
sidered in the South rather plebeian and fit only for 
slaves, immigrants from Europe would not settle there, 
and thus that section was deprived of many skilled me- 
chanics and much- capital that would have been invested 
in manufactures. 

530. Growth of Cotton Production. — The invention of 
new spinning and weaving machinery that helped the 
growth of manufactures in the North had exactly the 
opposite effect in the South. This new machinery created 
an immense demand for cotton both in Europe and in the 
North. The production of cotton, therefore, became much 
more profitable to the South than ever before, and the 
invention of the cotton gin about this time made the very 
extensive production of cotton possible, and thus greatly 
increased the value of slave labor. All this tended to 
restrict the South to the production of cotton, and to 
establish the slavery system still more firmly. The south- 



422 National Growth 

ern planters put forth every effort to supply the demand 
for cotton and to secure the slaves necessary for its pro- 
duction. When Whitney invented the cotton gin in 1793, 
the South exported less than one half million pounds of 
cotton; in 1828 she exported more than a hundred and 
sixty million pounds, for which she received about twenty- 
five million dollars. With such an immense demand for 
this product, with a soil and climate specially suited to its 
extensive production, and with the slavery system estab- 
lished as the result of the extensive production of tobacco, 
rice, and indigo, it would have been surprising if the 
South had not turned its attention almost entirely to cot- 
ton raising. It was not long before it became a common 
saying in the South that " cotton is king." The sunny 
southern cotton fields have long been celebrated in poetry 
and song. 

531. Other Leading Agricultural Products. — While by 
1828 cotton had become the one great staple of the South, 
large quantities of tobacco, rice, and indigo continued to 
be raised there. Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina 
provided most of the tobacco. Most of the rice and indigo 
was produced south of Virginia. Maryland and Virginia 
raised much wheat for export. In the southern part of the 
West the same products were raised as in the southern 
Atlantic states, cotton being distinctly the leading crop. 
In the middle and northwestern states farm products in 
great variety were raised, and this was also true in the 
middle and northeastern states. In the matter of agricul- 
ture, the northern part of the West, therefore, was follow- 
ing the northern part of the East, and it was soon to follow 
it in the matter of manufactures. 

532. Development of Commerce and Transportation. — 
It was but natural that the great increase in the production 



Institutional Life 423 

of manufactured goods, and the extensive production of 
cotton and of many other farm products, should lead to a 
large increase in the commerce of the nation. This was 
true. The difficult question was to find some means by 
which a part of the immense quantities of farm products 
that were being raised in the middle and northern West 
could be sent to the eastern states, and some means by 
which the manufactured goods that were being made in 
the factories of the northern Atlantic states could be sent 
to the West. While the East was becoming more and 
more in need of the farm products of the West, and the 
West was becoming more and more in need of the manu- 
factured goods of the New England and the middle states, 
the Appalachian Mountains made it almost impossible to 
carry on commerce between the two sections. 

533. Necessity for Improvement in Means of Transpor- 
tation. — Wagons could cross the mountains, but trans- 
portation of this kind over bad roads was too expensive. 
The products of the West could be floated down the Ohio 
and Mississippi to New Orleans, but it was difficult to bring 
manufactured goods back against the swift streams. In 
addition to this hindrance, there was another side to the 
question of transportation. Unless a faster and cheaper 
way of transferring goods from one part of the country to 
another could be found, the East and West might develop 
along different lines, and this might in time destroy the 
unity of the nation. The whole question of transporta- 
tion became, therefore, more and more serious as the' 
West continued to develop. Fortunately for the United 
States, the problems of transportation and communication 
have been solved in a very satisfactory manner. 

534. The Steamboat. — The first great step toward their 
solution was the practical application of steam power to 



424 



National Growth 



water transportation. In 1807 Robert Fulton succeeded 
in propelling, in a successful and practical manner, a boat 
on the Hudson by means of steam power. In a few years 
steamboats were in general use on the coast and on the 
inland rivers. Before steam was so applied a ship was 
propelled by wind power only. A ship, therefore, could 
not move unless a breeze or wind were blowing, and could 
not advance up a river very well against a stronger current, 








The First Trip of Fulton's Boat, the Clermont, September, 1807 
From a drawing by J. H. Sherwin 

even with the assistance of the wind. The steamboats 
could go almost anywhere on the water, and as a rule 
could make much better time than vessels propelled by the 
wind. They could take the produce of the West down 
to New Orleans and could bring manufactured goods back, 
•whereas the sailboat could not be used with success for 
going up the Mississippi and its tributaries against the 
strong currents. 

535. Roads and Canals. — There were other marked 
improvements made in the means of transportation dur- 
ing this period. The national government and several 



Institutional Life 



425 



of the state governments took up the question of roads 
and canal building. The result was the construction of 
some excellent roads and canals. The Erie Canal, which 
connects the Hudson River and Lake Erie, was finished 
by the state of New York in 1825. This canal was of 
great value to commerce, and especially to that of the 
northern part of the West. The building of steamboats, 
canals, and good roads enabled the people in 1828 to travel 







^si^x^t^fe^^w 



The Wayside Inn 



about twice as fast as they could in 1800. It still required 
as long, however, to go from Boston to the city of Wash- 
ington as it does at this time to go from Chicago to San 
Francisco. It is very likely that the canal and road con- 
struction that was going on about 1828 would have resulted 
in a still further great improvement in the means of trans- 
portation and communication between the East and the 
West. But soon after this time steam railroads began to 
be built, and during the period of Westward Expansion 



426 



National Growth 




Stagecoach or 182S 

and Slavery, which ends in i860, the means of transporta- 
tion and communication were revolutionized. The discus- 
sion of this question will be continued at the close of the 
next period. 

536. Inventions and Discoveries. — In addition to the 
invention of spinning and weaving machinery, and of the 
cotton gin, and the steamboat, a number of other practical 
mechanical inventions were made during this period. But 
with the exception of those just named, most of the great 
inventions and discoveries that have so changed industrial 
and social conditions have been made since then. The 
threshing machine, the reaper, the sewing machine, the 
telegraph, the steam railroad, the coal-oil lamp, the gas 
light, and many other valuable inventions and discoveries 
all came into use during the next period. Before 1825 the 
farmer cut his wheat with the hand sickle or scythe and 
threshed it with the flail or by tramping it out. The 
women did all their sewing with the needle, and the 
houses were lighted with tallow candles. Scarcely any of 
the thousands of labor-saving machines which are now in 
general use, and which are considered absolutely necessary, 
had been invented at that time. It is almost impossible for 
those who are living in the twentieth century to realize and 



Institutional Life 



427 



to appreciate fully the changes which have taken place along 
these lines since 1828. The changes which have taken 
place since then in machinery and in means of transporta- 
tion and communication have been greater than during all 
the history of the world before that time. 

537. Social Conditions ; the South. — Between the close 
of the Revolution and the War of 18 12 there was very 
little change in the dress and amusements of the people. 
The manners and customs of colonial times did not change 






Scene at a Fire in 1800 

greatly until the latter part of this period. In fact, it was 
not until the coming of the railroad that colonial manners 
and customs passed away. There was scarcely any change 
of any kind during this period in the social conditions of 
the South. There were four distinct classes in southern 
society in the same way as in colonial times. The large 
slaveholders, who were usually the owners of large planta- 
tions, comprised the upper class. Next to this class came 
the middle class, which consisted of the smaller farmers 
and of those engaged in trade of one kind or another. 



428 National Growth 

Next to the middle class came the poor whites. The fourth 
class consisted of the large slave population. This con- 
tinuation of sharp class distinctions in the South was due 
to slavery and to the fact that the growth of democratic 
ideas had not taken place in the South except to a very 
limited extent. 

538. Social Conditions in the North and the West. — In 
the North, on the other hand, democratic ideas had grown 
steadily ; especially was this true of the western part of 
the North. The growth of these ideas tended strongly to 
break down class distinctions. In the West, where one 
man was considered as good as another irrespective of his 
birth or wealth, class distinctions scarcely existed at all. 
In the eastern part of the North the division of society 
into the three classes which existed in colonial times con- 
tinued to exist until toward the latter part of this period, 
although by that time class distinctions were passing away 
rapidly. The West with its liberal ideas and democratic 
manners and customs had marked influence on the North, 
especially on the middle states. The business intercourse 
between these states and the West was one cause of this. 
The election of Jackson was due largely to the influence 
of the West, and the triumph of democratic ideas in his 
election brought about the rapid destruction of class 
distinctions in the North during the period of Westward 
Expansion and Slavery. 

539. Government. — There was very little change in 
the institution of government during this period. The 
changes which took place in the national government con- 
sisted merely in the natural and rational development of 
the principles set forth in the Constitution. In local 
and state government the growth and modification were 
natural, and were along the lines laid down during the 



Institutional Life 



429 



preceding periods. The organization and government of 
the new territory acquired were based on the Ordinance 
of 1787. The new state governments were organized 
along the same lines as those formed during the Revolu- 
tion, which in turn were based on the government of the 
colonies. The constitutions 
of the western states were 
more democratic than those 
of the older states, but nearly 
all the older states had 
amended their constitutions 
in this respect. In 1800 only 
about one person in thirty- 
five could vote, while by 1828 
about one person in ten had 
this right. This change was 
due to the change in the 
constitutions and laws of the 
various states, which was 
brought about by the growth 
of democratic ideas. The 
growth of these ideas, which 
was especially rapid in the 
West, resulted in the election 
of Jackson as President in 
the autumn of 1828, and in 
a further amendment of 
state constitutions during 
the next period along still more democratic lines. 

540. Religion. — During this period the spirit of intol- 
erance and persecution formerly prevailing in religious 
matters was broken down, and complete religious liberty 
was established. In most of the colonies, at the beginning 




Old south Church, Boston 



43° 



National Growth 



of the Revolution, a man in order to hold an office or vote 
was required by law to have certain religious ideas. These 
religious qualifications were largely done away with during 
the Revolution, and church and state soon became com- 
pletely separated in all the states. Many new religious 
denominations or sects came into existence, and national 
organizations of these various churches were formed. 




The University of Virginia 
As designed by Thomas Jefferson 

541. Education. — For about twenty-five or thirty years 
after the beginning of the Revolution, education in the 
United States went backward. This was true with regard 
to the grammar school, the academy, and the college. In 
addition to the schools of all grades becoming poorer and 
less attended, there were no great American writers during 
this time. About 1810 a change for the better along edu- 



Institutional Life 



43 1 



cational and literary lines began. Washington Irving and 
James Fenimore Cooper commenced writing about this 
time, and a little later William Cullen Bryant began his 
literary work. In the latter part of this period the com- 
mon school system began to 
be developed, and especially 
was this true in a number of 
the western states. Congress 
provided that at least one sec- 
tion out of every thirty-six 
sections of public land in the 
West should be set aside for 
the benefit of education. This 
wise and liberal policy was 
just beginning to have a good 
effect in building up schools, 
and since then it has become 
a mighty power in advancing 
free public education in the 
United States. Between 18 15 
and 1828 a large number of 
students began attending the 
colleges, and about 1825 Boston and some of the other 
eastern cities established high schools. All this indicates 
that toward the end of this period there began to be an 
improvement in common school, high school, and college 
education. While this improvement continued slowly 
throughout all the next period, the real growth and de- 
velopment of the free public school system, including 
elementary schools, secondary schools, normal schools, and 
universities, have taken place since the Civil War. 




Washington Irving 

Painted by D. Wilkie at Seville, 
April 23, 1828 



432 National Growth 



QUESTIONS AND TOPICS 

Questions for Class Recitations 

Into what two periods does the history of the United States between 
1789 and i860 naturally divide itself? Explain fully why the first period 
may be called National Growth and European Interference. Explain 
fully why the second period may be called Westward Expansion and 
Slavery. 

THE PERIOD OF EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 
Questions for Class Recitations 

(In connection with the questions on The Period of European Inter- 
ference, each pupil should read the third number of Hart's " Source 
Readers in American History,' 1 pp. 217-315. See "Explanatory and 
Suggestive," page ix.) Who made the laws of France about the time 
Washington was first elected President of the United States? Compare 
the powers which the French people had in making their laws at that 
time with the power which the American people had in making their 
laws. Describe the way in which the French government and the 
nobles treated the common people. How did this treatment cause the 
French people to feel toward their government? In what way did 
the American Revolution and the part which France took in it help to 
cause the French Revolution? Describe some of the things which took 
place in France during this Revolution. In what way were these acts 
the natural result of the bad treatment which the French people had 
received from their government? How did the French Revolution lead 
to war between France and England? Explain fully why the French 
expected the Americans to help them in this war. Describe the work 
of Genet in the United States. Describe fully the attitude of the Ameri- 
cans toward France in this war. What was the attitude of Washing- 
ton? Explain the Neutrality Proclamation. Explain fully why the 
principle of American Neutrality in European Affairs which this procla- 
mation established is of very great importance in the history of the 
United States. How is this principle related to the Monroe Doctrine? 

Explain the Rule of 1756. Illustrate how it was applied to America. 
Describe the Impressment Policy of Great Britain. How did this 



Questions and Topics 433 

policy affect America, and how was it received by the Americans? 
What was the general attitude of the English government toward the 
United States after the American Revolution? How was the war with 
England averted at this time? What was the nature of the Jay Treaty? 
How was it received by the American people? How was it received in 
France? What was the effect of the Genet affair and the Neutrality 
Proclamation on France? Explain the X, Y, Z Affair. What effect did 
this treatment of the American commissioners have on the American 
government and the American people? Describe the preparations for 
war with France, and the few battles which took place between some 
of the war vessels of the two nations. How was war between France 
and the United States averted? 

How did the firm stand which the Federalists took in the trouble 
with France cause the people to feel toward the Federalist party? 
What led to the passage of the Alien and Sedition Laws? Explain the 
Alien Laws. What was the object of these laws? To what extent 
were they enforced? Explain the Sedition Act. What was the object 
of this act? To what extent was it enforced? How were the Alien 
and Sedition Acts received by the people? What effect did their pas- 
sage have on the Federalist party? Upon what grounds did the Repub- 
licans oppose the Alien and Sedition Acts? How did these laws lead 
to the passage of the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions? Who was 
the author of each set of these resolutions? Explain carefully the prin- 
ciples which these resolutions stated. In what respect did the Ken- 
tucky and the Virginia Resolutions differ? What would have been the 
effect on the national government if the principles stated in the resolu- 
tions had been carried out? How were the Virginia and Kentucky 
Resolutions received by the legislatures of the other states? Why are 
these resolutions important? 

Why did the United States and especially the people in the western 
part desire to have control of the Mississippi ? When Spain had con- 
trol of it, what rights did she grant the United States, and why were 
these rights of great value to the western people ? Why did the 
United States object to Spain ceding Louisiana to France ? When it 
became known that France had secured this territory, what conditions 
made Jefferson anxious to buy the territory at the mouth of the Missis- 
sippi with as little delay as possible ? What conditions in Europe 
made Napoleon willing to sell the entire Louisiana Territory ? Why 
did he sell it to the United States ? 



434 National Growth 

When did Napoleon secure control of the French government and 
bring the French Revolution to an end ? Describe briefly the relation 
of France to the rest of Europe from 1803 to 181 5. Why did France 
and England each try to destroy the commerce of the other ? Explain 
carefully the British " Orders in Council " and the French " Decrees." 
When is a port actually blockaded ? Explain carefully how the Orders 
in Council and Decrees injured American commerce. Describe the 
way in which the British at this time were enforcing the so-called 
" Right of Search." What do you think the United States should 
have done under these circumstances ? What was Jefferson's attitude 
toward the army and navy ? What was his policy toward England and 
France ? Describe the Embargo Act. Describe the Enforcement Act. 
What was the effect of the Embargo Act on England and France ? 
What was its effect on the United States ? In what way did the Non- 
Importation Act differ from the Embargo Act ? 

Discuss or review the causes and conditions which led to the War of 

1812. Explain carefully in what important respects the Congress which 
met in December, 181 1, differed from those which immediately preceded 
it. Why would the nature of the new Congress naturally lead to war ? 
Why was war declared against England instead of against France ? 
Describe the condition of the American army at the beginning of the 
war. Describe the condition of the navy at this time. How would the 
poor condition of the army and navy naturally affect the success of 
the Americans in the war ? What other conditions at the beginning 
of the war tended to prevent American success ? Describe the war on 
land during the year 1812. Describe the war on land during the year 

1813. Describe the war on land during the year 1814. Describe the 
battle of New Orleans. Explain why this battle would not have been 
fought if the War of 181 2 had taken place since 1850. Describe care- 
fully the war on sea. State the terms of the treaty of peace. Describe 
carefully some of the more important results of the war. 

Why were the people of New England opposed to Jefferson's 
embargo and non-importation policy and to the War of 1812 ? Dis- 
cuss the causes of the Hartford convention. What was the object of 
holding this convention ? What did this convention do ? Compare 
the work of this convention with the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. 

Why did the United States wish to buy Florida ? What caused 
Spain to become willing to sell it ? What were the terms of the 
purchase ? 



Questions and Topics 435 

Describe the conditions which led to the formation of the Holy 
Alliance. What was the object of this alliance ? Why did Great 
Britain and the United States object to its proposal to help Spain 
recover the Spanish-American colonies ? Describe the claim of Russia 
on the Pacific coast at this time. Describe the attitude of Secretary 
Adams on this question. Explain carefully all the circumstances and 
conditions that caused Monroe to insert in his message to Congress 
the statement known as the Monroe Doctrine. Explain the Monroe 
Doctrine and show how it is related to the principle of American 
Neutrality in European Affairs. Explain carefully why the period of 
European Interference ends with the Monroe Doctrine. 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the reason for dividing the history of the United States 
between 1789 and i860 into the periods of National Growth and 
European Interference, and Westward Expansion and Slavery. Discuss 
the origin of the principle of American Neutrality in European Affairs, 
and explain why this principle has been very important in the his- 
tory of the United States. Discuss the conditions leading to the Jay 
Treaty and the results of the treaty. Discuss the breach with France. 
Discuss the Alien and Sedition Acts, and the Virginia and Kentucky 
Resolutions. Discuss the conditions leading to the purchase of 
Louisiana. Discuss the causes of the War of 181 2, including Orders in 
Council, Decrees, and embargo policy of Jefferson. Discuss the war 
on land. Discuss the war on sea. Discuss the results of the war. 
Discuss the Hartford convention. Discuss the Monroe Doctrine, includ- 
ing its causes and effects. 



FINANCIAL LEGISLATION: THE TARIFF 

Questions for Class Recitations 

Explain fully the financial condition of the national government at 
the time Washington became President. What was the object of the 
first tariff? Explain fully each part of Hamilton's financial plan. How 
was his plan received by Congress? What effect did the adoption of 
Hamilton's financial measures have on the credit of the United States? 
Explain carefully how these measures strengthened the national gov- 



43 6 



National Growth 



ernment. In what condition were the financial affairs of the national 
government at the time Jefferson became President? How did Jeffer- 
son propose to reduce taxation and the national debt? To what extent 
were he and Gallatin successful in doing this? Explain how their 
measures affected the army and navy. Discuss the rise of state banks. 
What prevented the renewal of the charter of the United States Bank 
in 18 1 1 ? What caused its renewal in 1816? 

What is meant by a tariff as used in connection with national legis- 
lation? Explain carefully what is meant by a tariff for revenue only. 
Explain carefully what is meant by a tariff for revenue and for the pro- 
tection of home industries also. Discuss the value of the principle of 
protection as used in connection with the tariff. What was the object 
of the first tariff law that Congress passed? What was the main object 
of all the tariff laws that were passed by Congress before 1816? Ex- 
plain carefully how the War of 1812 led to the passage of the protective 
tariff law of 1816. Discuss the growth of the idea of protection. Dis- 
cuss the growth of the principle of the protective tariff. 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the object, nature, and result of Hamilton's financial plan. 
Discuss the object, nature, and result of Jefferson and Gallatin's finan- 
cial policy. Discuss the history of the United States Bank during this 
period, including the rise of state banks and their effect on the United 
States Bank. Give a careful discussion of the history of the tariff 
during this period. 

POLITICAL PARTIES 

Questions for Class Recitations 

Explain carefully what caused the rise of political parties and why 
they continue to exist. What is the value of political parties? What 
was the first great question that caused the people of the United States 
to divide themselves into political parties ? Explain carefully the mean- 
ing of what is called the elastic clause of the Constitution. Explain 
carefully what is meant by the " loose interpretation of the Constitu- 
tion." Explain carefully what is meant by the "strict interpretation of 
the Constitution." State which of these two interpretations tends to 
create a strong national government, and give reasons for your answer. 



Questions and Topics 437 

Name some of the more important leaders of the Federalist party. 
Name the Federalist Presidents and state when each was President. 
Explain carefully the main principles and ideas of this party. Describe 
briefly the work of the Federalist party. Explain how the ideas of this 
party were out of harmony with the spirit of the times. Discuss the 
conditions and the things that caused the Federalist party to lose con- 
trol of the government, and finally to cease to exist. 

Name some of the more important leaders of the Republican party. 
Name the Republican Presidents, and state when each was President. 
Explain carefully the main principles and ideas of this party. Discuss 
the decline and fall of the Republican party. The promises on which 
the Republican party secured control of the government involved what 
two general principles? Explain in what way this party carried out one 
of these principles. Explain carefully the conditions and circumstances 
that caused it not to carry out the other promise to any extent what- 
ever. Explain why the party in power usually gives a loose interpreta- 
tion to the Constitution, and why the party out of power usually opposes 
this. 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the origin and value of political parties in the United States. 
Discuss the principles, growth, and decline of the Federalist party. 
Discuss likewise the principles, growth, and decline of the Republican 
party. 

GROWTH OF THE NATION 

Questions for Class Recitations 

(In connection with the questions on the Growth of the Nation, each 
pupil should read the third number of Harfs " Source Readers in Ameri- 
can History," pp. 143-215. See" Explanatory and Suggestive," page ix.) 
Compare the area of the United States at the close of the Revolution 
with its area at the end of the period of National Growth and European 
Interference. Compare the settled area of the nation at these different 
times, showing the direction in which the settled area was growing. 
Compare the population of the United States at the close of the Revolu- 
tion with the population in 1828. (Each pupil should draw a map 
illustrating the growth of the total and settled areas of the United States 
during this period.) Describe carefully the condition that caused so 



43« 



National Growth 



many people to settle during this period in the country between the 
Mississippi and the Appalachian Mountains. What conditions have 
always caused a rush of settlers westward? Explain carefully what is 
meant by the statement that the population moved westward in parallel 
lines from the northern and southern Atlantic coast states. Explain 
carefully how this caused industrial and social conditions to differ in the 
northern and the southern sections of the western country. 

Discuss the formation of new states in the western territory. Why 
were the constitutions of these western states more democratic than those 
of the eastern states? What is meant by internal improvements as used 
in national affairs? How did the growth of the West make the matter 
of internal improvements a question of national importance? Describe 
carefully the internal improvements made during this period by the 
national and state governments. Explain carefully how the Ordinance 
of 1787 affected slavery in the western territory. How was the question 
of slavery settled in that part of the western territory south of the Ohio 
and east of the Mississippi? Why did the application of Missouri for 
admission to the Union cause a struggle over slavery ? What had caused 
the gradual abolition of slavery in the North ? What had caused slavery 
to become more firmly established in the South? How did this differ- 
ence between the North and the South affect the question of the exten- 
sion of slavery into the Louisiana Territory? Explain carefully all the 
conditions and circumstances that led to the Missouri Compromise. 
Explain the terms of this compromise. How did this compromise 
affect the question of slavery? 

How did the interference with American affairs by Europe aid the 
growth of American national unity? What was the effect of the War 
of 1812 on national life? How did the purchase of Louisiana and Flor- 
ida aid the growth of national unity? Explain carefully how the rapid 
development of the West aided this growth. Explain carefully how 
some of the Supreme Court decisions strengthened the national govern- 
ment. Explain carefully how slavery was gradually causing the North 
and the South to drift farther and farther apart. 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the growth of the United States in territory and population 
during this period. Discuss the causes of the rapid growth of the West. 
How were industrial and social conditions in the West directly related 



Questions and Topics 439 

to those in the East? Discuss the formation of new states in the west- 
ern territory. How was the question of slavery settled in the western 
territory east of the Mississippi ? Discuss the causes, terms, and results 
of the Missouri Compromise. Discuss the growth of national unity 
during this period. 



INSTITUTIONAL LIFE 
Questions for Class Recitations 

What is meant by the statement that during the period from the 
close of the Revolution to 1828 institutional life in the United States 
was gradually changing from colonial conditions ? What was the na- 
ture of the change in industrial conditions ? What was the nature of 
the change in the institutions of social life and government ? What 
was the nature of the change in the institutions of religion and educa- 
tion ? (Before continuing farther with this work the pupil should re- 
view carefully the subject of " Institutional Life in the Colonies." This 
review is very important and should not be omitted.) 

Describe briefly the condition of manufactures in the colonies. Ex- 
plain carefully how the Embargo Acts and the War of 181 2 caused the 
growth of American manufactures. In what way was the invention of 
machinery related to the increase in the manufacture of cotton and 
woolen goods ? What relation had the cotton gin to this increase ? 
Describe briefly the growth of the manufacturing industry in the 
United States up to about 1828. In what part of the nation did this 
growth take place ? Why did manufactures not develop in the West 
during this period ? Explain carefully why manufactures were not 
developed in the South. Discuss carefully the causes of the growth 
of the cotton industry. What were some of the other important farm 
products of the South ? Discuss the condition of agriculture in the 
West and in the northern Atlantic states. 

Explain how the growth in manufacturing and agriculture affected 
the commerce of the nation. Explain carefully how the growth of the 
West brought about conditions that made better means of transporta- 
tion and communication very desirable. Describe carefully the effect 
that the invention of the steamboat had on transportation. Describe 
some other important improvements that were made in the means 
of transportation during this period. What were some of the more. 



44° National Growth 

important inventions and discoveries made up to 1828 ? How do they 
compare with those that have been made since ? 

(In connection with the questions on Social Conditions, each pupil 
should read the third number of Hart's u Source Readers in American 
History," pp. 1-142.) Discuss the changes which took place in the 
manners and customs of the people during the period of National 
Growth and European Interference. Describe the classes which ex- 
isted in southern society during this time. Explain carefully why 
there had been scarcely any changes in southern society since the 
Revolution. Explain how the growth of democratic ideas affected class 
distinctions in the North. Discuss the effect of the West on class dis- 
tinctions in the North. Discuss the effect of the West on class dis- 
tinctions in the East. Explain the relation of Jackson's election to the 
destruction of class distinctions. Explain carefully the changes which 
took place in the national government during this period. What kind 
of state governments did the western states have ? How did the state 
governments of the East and the West differ as to nature ? What caused 
the state governments during this period to become more democratic ? 
What changes in religious conditions occurred during this period ? 
(In connection with the questions on Education, each pupil should 
read the third number of Hart's " Source Readers in American History," 
pp. 317-371.) What was the condition of education in the United 
States from the close of the Revolution to about 1810 ? What was the 
cause of this ? In what way was and is the public land directly related 
to the common school system ? Describe the improvement that took 
place in the schools during the latter part of this period. Who were 
some of the more important American writers of this period ? 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the nature of the institutional changes that took place dur- 
ing this period. Discuss the growth and development of manufactures. 
Discuss the growth of agriculture. Discuss the growth of commerce, 
and the improvement in the means of transportation and communica- 
tion. Discuss the changes in social conditions. Discuss the changes 
in government. Discuss the condition of education. 



WESTWARD EXPANSION AND 
SLAVERY 

POLITICAL METHODS AND POLITICAL PARTIES 

I. The Meaning of Jackson's Election 
II. Political Methods 

1. The Spoils System 

2. Change in the Method of electing Electors 

3. National Nominating Conventions, Platforms, and Campaigns 
III. Political Parties 

1 . The Formation of New Parties 

2. The Democratic Party 

3. The Whig Party 

4. The Republican Party 

FINANCIAL LEGISLATION: THE TARIFF 

I. The Tariff 

1. The Tariff of 1828 : the Doctrine of Nullification 

2. Other Changes in the Tariff 
II. Destruction of the National Bank 

III. The Panic of 1837 

1. Era of Speculation : the Specie Circular 

2. The Distribution of the Surplus : the Crisis 

IV. The Independent or Subtreasury System 

GROWTH OF THE NATION IN TERRITORY AND 
POPULATION 
I. The Oregon Territory 
II. Annexation of Texas 

III. The Mexican War 

IV. Growth in Territory and Population: the Pacific Coast 

441 



442 Westward Expansion and Slavery 



THE SLAVERY QUESTION 

I. Conditions affecting the Growth of Slavery 

II. Rise of the Abolitionists 

III. The Gag Resolutions 

IV. The Compromise of 1850 

V. The Kansas-Nebraska Bill and the Dred Scott Decision 

VI. The Lincoln-Douglas Debates : the Election of Lincoln 

VII. Review and Conclusions 



INSTITUTIONAL LIFE 

I. Industrial Conditions 

1 . Nature of Development 

2. Improvement in the Means of Transportation and Communi 

cation 

3. Other Inventions and Discoveries 

4. Agriculture and Manufactures 

5. Commerce and Cities 
II. Social Conditions 

1. Classes of Society 

2. Dress and Amusements 

III. Government 

1. Nature of Development 

2. Change in Manner of selecting Judges 

IV. Religion 
V. Education 

1. The Public Schools 

2. Literature 



Political Methods and Political Parties 443 

POLITICAL METHODS AND POLITICAL PARTIES 

542. Chief Characteristics of the Period. — The period of 
Westward Expansion and Slavery extends from about 1828 
to the Civil War. As already noted, its main features or 
characteristics were the continued growth of the nation in 
territory, wealth, and population, and the struggle over the 
extension of slavery into the territory west of the Missis- 
sippi. During the preceding period the nation had, to a 
large extent, thrown off its colonial conditions and tradi- 
tions, and had become independent of Europe in fact as 
well as in name. Now, the great question of slavery and 
other important domestic questions, which had been gradu- 
ally shaping themselves, came to the front, and the life of 
the nation centered around them during this entire period. 

543. Growth of Liberal Democratic Ideas ; some Results. 
— During the period of National Growth and European 
Interference there had been a steady growth among the 
people of liberal democratic ideas. The first results of this 
growth were the election of Jefferson in 1800, and doing 
away with the aristocratic etiquette and ceremonies which 
the Federalists had introduced in connection with the offi- 
cial work of the national government. Another result was 
the extension of the right to vote. When Washington first 
became President, not more than one person out of every 
forty had the right to vote, while in 1828 about four per- 
sons out of this number had this right. The breaking 
down of the distinction between classes was another result 
of the growth of these ideas. In the North, and especially 
in the great and rapidly growing West, the people were 
no longer divided into well-defined classes, although they 
still were in the South. The people more and more were 
coming to believe that a person should be valued for his 



444 Westward Expansion and Slavery 

real character, not because of his birth or his wealth. 
Thus, during the preceding period, these democratic ideas 
secured first one change and then another in the princi- 
ples of government and of society. But the great triumph 
of these ideas was the election of Jackson in 1828. 

544. Predominance of Aristocracy up to 1828. — Up to 
this time the office of President had been held by six 
different men. They all belonged to the upper class. 
Washington, Jefferson, Madison, and Monroe were from 
Virginia, and belonged to the aristocracy of that state. 
Each of these four men had been President for two terms. 
John Adams and his son, John Quincy Adams, the other 
two of these first six Presidents, were from Boston, and 
belonged to the upper class or aristocracy of that city. 
Each of these last two men had been President but one 
term. Jefferson did not believe, as did the leaders of the 
Federalist party, that the right to vote should be re- 
stricted to the well-educated and wealthy classes, nor did 
he believe that the forms and ceremonies of government 
should be very aristocratic. In his private life, however, 
Jefferson was strongly aristocratic, and he believed, as 
did the Federalists, that the higher officers of the national 
government should be from the well-educated and cultured 
classes. 

545. The Election of Jackson, therefore, was contrary to 
the ideas of Jefferson and the Republican party, as well as 
to the ideas of Washington and Hamilton and the Federalist 
party, because Jackson was one of the common people. 
He was among the early settlers of the territory which 
afterward became the state of Tennessee. His life had 
been an almost continuous struggle with poverty and 
adverse circumstances. He was not nearly so well edu- 
cated nor so cultured as were the first six Presidents. He 



Political Methods and Political Parties 445 

was blunt in manner and speech, headstrong, and inde- 
pendent. He typified the rough frontier life of the western 
states. Absolutely honest himself, he sometimes placed 
too much confidence in men who were not honest. His 
election marks the complete triumph of democracy in the 
United States. When he took the oath of office in March, 
1829, great crowds of people, who had come to the city of 
Washington from the North, from the South, and from the 
West, rejoiced because at last one of their own number 
had become President. 

546. The State Democracy of Jefferson. — Jackson's elec- 
tion marked the triumph of another principle of gov- 
ernment quite different from that in which Jefferson 
believed. Jefferson believed in democracy, but that which 
he had in mind was a state democracy. He believed that 
within each state the will of the people should be supreme, 
and that the national government should not interfere at 
all with the rights, powers, and laws of the states, because 
the government of a state represented the desires and 
wishes of its people. Jefferson did not carry out these 
principles very well as President, but they represent his 
ideas of what the government should be. 

547. The National Democracy of Jackson. — Jackson, like 
Jefferson, believed in democracy and that the will of the 
people should be carried out ; but Jackson's democracy 
was a national democracy and not a state democracy. 
He believed that the national government should be ab- 
solutely supreme so long as it did not exceed the powers 
granted to it by the Constitution. He gave a strict con- 
struction to the Constitution, which the Federalists and 
Republicans had not done, but he was determined that the 
national laws should be supreme, and he was prepared 
to invade any state that violated those laws, and if neces- 



446 Westward Expansion and Slavery 

sary, even to hang every person who interfered with their 
enforcement. He had no belief in the theory that the 
Constitution was a contract or agreement between the 
states. His idea was that the Constitution was adopted 
by the people of the whole nation without regard to state 
lines, and that therefore the national government repre- 
sented the will of the people of the entire nation. It thus 
becomes plain that Jackson's election was the triumph of 
national democracy as opposed to Jefferson's idea of state 
democracy. 

548. The Spoils System ; Nature ; Effect on Public Ser- 
vice. — During Jackson's two terms of office there was a 
complete change in national political methods and politi- 
cal parties. It was during this time that the Spoils Sys- 
tem was introduced into the politics of the nation. This 
system consists in the giving of as many offices as pos- 
sible to those who have helped elect the successful candi- 
dates. Almost every officer, from the county officials to 
the President of the United States, has the power of 
appointing persons to office. If the candidate elected 
be a Democrat, he usually appoints Democrats ; if he 
be a Republican, he usually appoints Republicans. No 
matter how faithfully an officer may have performed his 
duties, his position is usually given to some member of 
the successful party, and often the new officer is less com- 
petent than the one whose place he takes. As a result 
of this policy, public business frequently suffers serious 
injury. 

549. Introduction into National Politics of Spoils System. 
— The Spoils System had already been introduced into the 
politics of New York, but Jackson was responsible for its 
introduction into national politics. He was most loyal to 
his friends, and bitterly opposed to his enemies. He could 



Political Methods and Political Parties 447 

see nothing bad in a friend, and but little good in an enemy. 
He wished to reward those who had worked for his election, 
and decided that he could do this nicely by putting them 
in the offices that were under his control. He claimed 
that a change or rotation in office was democratic and a 
good thing; that to the victor belonged the spoils of office 
— that the successful candidate might fill the offices under 
his control with personal followers. During the first nine 
months of his administration, Jackson removed more than 
one thousand men from office, whereas the first six Presi- 
dents together, during the first forty years of the nation's 
history under the Constitution, had removed less than one 
hundred, and those thus removed had been removed for 
good cause and not because of their political connections. 
Since Jackson's time the successful candidates of all parties 
have removed men from office because of politics, and 
have appointed members of their own party to the posi- 
tions thus made vacant. Since 1871 the evil effects of 
this policy have been greatly lessened by the enactment 
of national legislation known as the Civil Service Laws. 
These laws require that certain officials be selected by 
means of examinations, and that officers thus selected can- 
not be removed for political reasons. 

550. Early Methods of choosing Presidential Electors. — 
For a long time after the Constitution went into effect 
the great mass of the people took but little active part 
in the elections for President. This was due to the fact 
that the men — called electors — whom each state selected 
to choose the President and Vice President were not, as a rule, 
nominated by a political party, and were often not voted 
for by the people. In some of those states where the 
people had the right to vote for the electors, the latter 
were usually nominated by the legislature. In many 



448 Westward Expansion and Slavery 

states the electors were chosen directly by the legislature, 
and the people did not have the right to vote for them. 
Even as late as 1828 the electors in Delaware and South 
Carolina were elected by the legislature. Under these 
circumstances electors would often be more or less in- 
dependent when voting for candidates for. President and 
Vice President. This was exactly as those who framed 
the Constitution had intended. They desired that each 
elector should vote for men whom he thought best quali- 
fied for these important positions, and that his vote should 
not be influenced by politics or friendship. Almost from 
the very first, however, this intention was not carried out. 
A state legislature, as a rule, would choose as electors only 
those who would vote as it desired. Under all these cir- 
cumstances the people took very little active part in the 
elections for President and Vice President. 

551. Change in Manner of choosing Electors. — But the 
growth of liberal democratic ideas worked a complete 
change in this matter. By the new state constitutions 
of the West, and by amendments to many of the state 
constitutions of the East, the people of nearly all the 
states gradually secured the right to vote for the electors. 
This was soon to bring about a change in the attitude 
of the people toward the election of President. In some 
of the states, during the presidential election of 1824, 
the friends of each of the various candidates nominated 
electors who were pledged to vote for their candidates. 
Thus there were several sets of men in the same state 
running for electors. This caused the people for the 
first time in the history of the nation to take some real 
interest in the election for President and Vice President, 
but in many of the states the people were not interested 
very much in this election. During the campaign that 



Political Methods and Political Parties 449 

resulted in the election of Jackson in 1828, there were in 
most of the states more than one set of men running for 
electors. As a result, the interest and the part which the 
people as a whole took in this election were much greater 
than they had ever before taken in any similar election, 
more than twice as many votes being cast for the electors 
as were cast in the presidential election of 1824. 

552. National Political Organizations ; Nominating Con- 
ventions. — During Jackson's first term other important 
changes in political methods took place. New political 
parties were organized, and for the first time in the nation's 
history national political organizations were formed. Be- 
fore 1832 the candidates for President and Vice President 
had been nominated by a caucus of party leaders in Con- 
gress or by state legislatures. The nominating of these 
candidates now- passed into the hands of the people. The 
three candidates for President and the three candidates for 
Vice President in the campaign of 1832 were nominated 
by national conventions composed of delegates selected by 
the members of the various parties in the different states. 
Jackson, however, was not formally nominated by the 
Democratic convention, because the people knew that 
he was the candidate of the Democratic party. Each of 
the parties in a state would send a certain number of 
delegates to its national convention, and would nominate 
men for electors who were pledged to vote for the candi- 
dates of the party. 

553. Political Platforms. — Each of these first three 
national conventions, in addition to nominating a man for 
President and one for Vice President in the campaign of 
1832, issued a statement of what it believed and what 
it would do in case it secured control of the govern- 
ment. These statements are called platforms. They 

2Q 



45° Westward Expansion and Slavery 



were the first ones of a national character ever issued in 
America. 

554. The People in Control of the Government. — In 1832, 
therefore, after liberal democratic ideas had been steadily 
growing among the people for almost forty-four years, 
the people secured complete control of the government. 
In each state the political parties held state conventions. 

These state conven- 
tions nominated candi- 
dates for the various 
state offices and for 
presidential electors, 
and selected delegates 
to the national conven- 
tions. Each national 
convention nominated 
candidates for Presi- 
dent and Vice Presi- 
dent, and declared the 
principles of the party 
in a statement called a 
platform. There was 
no longer any lack of 
interest in presidential 

elections. It became 
John Quincy Adams . , 

J necessary in each state 

for all the parties to do all they could to win votes for their 
candidates. New and active campaign methods were in- 
troduced. Stump speaking, torchlight processions, and 
spectacular displays of various kinds, such as would rouse 
enthusiasm among the people, were a part of this new 
order of things. This method of conducting a campaign 
has been continued to the present time, and is used in 




Political Methods and Political Parties 451 

public elections of all kinds, including those for city, 
county, state, and national officials. 

555. Fall of the Republican Party ; Rise of New Parties. 
— In the presidential election of 18 16 the Federalist party 
carried but three states. With this crushing defeat that 
party ceased to exist. During the next eight years the 
Republican party was the only political party in the 
United States. In the campaign for President in 1824 it 
began to break up into personal factions. In that cam- 
paign Jackson received more popular votes and more 
electoral votes than any other candidate ; but as he did 
not receive a majority of the electoral vote, it became 
the duty of the House of Representatives to elect a Presi- 
dent. That body elected John Quincy Adams. During 
Adams's administration the fight between the leaders of 
the Republican party became more and more bitter, the 
result being the election of Jackson in 1828. During 
Jackson's first administration the Republican party ceased 
to exist, and several new parties were formed. The two 
more important of these are known as the Democratic 
party and the National-Republican party, the latter be- 
coming known later as the Whig party. The other great 
party to be founded during this period was the Repub- 
lican party of to-day. It was not organized until 1854. 

556. The Democratic Party. — Although its leaders and 
issues have changed, the Democratic party organized 
in Jackson's time has never been broken up, and has 
been and is at the present time a great and powerful 
party. The Democratic Presidents during this period 
were Jackson, 1 829-1 837; Van Buren, 1837-1841 ; Pierce, 
1853-1857; and Buchanan, 1857-1861. The first ques- 
tions on which the Democratic party took a stand were 
nullification and the United States Bank. Jackson op- 



45 2 Westward Expansion and Slavery- 



posed the right of nullification in a most decisive 
manner, and succeeded in destroying the United States 
Bank. Later in this period slavery became the main 
issue, and the Democratic party as a party favored slav- 
ery, but in the campaign of i860 the party split on this 
issue. The most important work of the party during this 
period was the establishment of the Independent Treasury 
System, the annexation of Texas, the inauguration and 
management of the war with Mexico, the reduction of the 

tariff in 1846 to an almost 
free-trade basis, and the 
passage of the Kansas- 
Nebraska Act in 1854. 

557. The Whig Party.— 
The general principles on 
which the Whig party was 
formed under the leader- 
ship of Clay and Webster 
were broad construction 
of the Constitution, inter- 
nal improvements by the 
aid of the national govern- 
ment, a protective tariff, 
and opposition to the ex- 
tension of slavery into the 
territory west of the Mississippi. The Whig party was 
the one great rival of the Democratic party from 1834 
to 1852, and twice succeeded in gaining control of the 
national government. The Whig Presidents were Harri- 
son and Tyler, 1841-1845 ; and Taylor and Fillmore, 
1 849-1 853. Harrison and Taylor both died in office, 
Harrison exactly one month after he became President, and 
Taylor after he had served as President a few days more 




Millard Fillmore 



Political Methods and Political Parties 



453 



than one year and four months. On Harrison's death, 
Vice President Tyler became President, and on Taylor's 
death Vice President Fillmore became' President. The 
deaths of Harrison and Taylor were very unfortunate for 
the Whig party. Neither Tyler nor Fillmore was really 
in sympathy with the principles of that party. They suc- 
ceeded in prevent- 
ing the Whig party 
from putting into 
effect any of its 
most important 
principles. While 
the Compromise 
of 1850 regarding 
the extension of 
slavery into the 
western territory 
was a Whig meas- 
ure, it was passed 
by the influence 
of Fillmore, and 
its passage was 
against the wishes 
of a large number 
of Whigs, espe- 
cially those of the North, where the main strength of the 
party lay. This failure of the party to take a definite 
stand on the slavery question, which was due largely to 
the influence of Fillmore, caused its downfall soon after 
the year 1850 

558. The Republican Party. — The increasing importance 
of the slavery question caused changes in the Democratic 
party, the breaking up of the Whig party, and the rise of 




Zachary Taylor 



454 Westward Expansion and Slavery- 
several minor parties in the latter part of this period. The 
various antislavery elements of all these parties united and 
formed a new party, which took the name Republican. 
This party rapidly gained strength in the North, and in 
i860, under the leadership of Abraham Lincoln, first car- 
ried the national election. Further discussion of the 
Republican party will be given in connection with the pe- 
riod, Reconstruction, Development, and Expansion, which 
period extends from the end of the Civil War to the 
present time. 

FINANCIAL LEGISLATION: THE TARIFF 

559. " Tariff of Abominations." — Just before the presi- 
dential election of 1828 Congress enacted a tariff law 
which caused much trouble during Jackson's first ad- 
ministration. Because of the very high and absurd 
duties which this tariff laid on imported goods, it is 
known as the Tariff of Abominations. The South was 
becoming more and more opposed to the protective prin- 
ciple of the tariff, but did not wish to oppose it at that 
time for fear that such opposition would cause Jackson's 
defeat in the coming election. In order to prevent the 
passage of a protective tariff, and at the same time make 
it appear to the people as though they favored it, some of 
the Jackson men in Congress proposed a tariff bill that 
levied high duties not only on manufactured goods, but 
also on raw goods or materials that were not produced 
in the United States. The tariff on raw material that was 
not produced in the United States would injure instead of 
help those who were engaged in manufacturing. When 
the bill was being discussed in Congress, the Jackson men 
prevented any reduction of the proposed duties on raw 



Financial Legislation: the Tariff 4^5 



material. They did this of course in order to cause those 
who favored levying a tariff on manufactured goods to 
cast their votes against the entire bill, but to the surprise 



r 



EXPOSITION 



rilW IKB©SEI3Si 



BY THE SPECIAL COMMITTEE 



urn si: of fit?/i/>-i. vr.mi't: 



THE TARIFF; 



coi.um&ia, s. c. 



Facsimile of the Exposition and Protest 

of the Jackson men those members of Congress who 
favored a protective tariff voted for the bill, and it became 
a law. 

560. Exposition and Protest of South Carolina. — In the 
South the new tariff was strongly denounced. A number 



456 Westward Expansion and Slavery 



of the southern legislatures passed resolutions against it. 
The resolutions passed by South Carolina in December, 
1828, included what is known as the Exposition and 
Protest of South Carolina. This Exposition and Protest 
stated that a state had the right to nullify — that is, de- 
clare null and void — a law of Congress, if it believed that 
the Constitution did not give Congress the right to pass 
that law. This was the same doctrine that had been stated 
in the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions in 1798, and by 

the Hartford convention in 
1 8 14. As stated on each of 
these three occasions, this 
doctrine was that the Consti- 
tution was a mere compact 
or contract between the dif- 
erent states, and that a state 
need not obey a law passed 
by Congress unless the Con- 
stitution gave that body the 
right to pass it. The Expo- 
sition and Protest of South 
Carolina was drawn up by 
Calhoun. When Calhoun en- 
tered Congress in December, 
181 1, he was a strong advo- 

JOHN C. CALHOUN ^ Qf ^ ^^ ^ ^ 

power of the national government. He voted for the War 
of 18 12, -and during his first years in Congress was a 
strong advocate of a protective tariff and of internal im- 
provement by the aid of the national government. Since 
then, however, he had changed his views. 

561. Nullification in South Carolina. — After the legis- 
lature of South Carolina had passed the Exposition 




Financial Legislation : the Tariff 457 

and Protest, Calhoun suggested that a state convention 
should be held for the purpose of deciding how to make 
the tariff of 1828 null and void within the limits of the 
state. Four years later, in November, 1832, South Caro- 
lina held a state convention for this purpose. Meanwhile 
the Tariff of Abominations had been revised, but its pro- 
tective features had been retained. A great debate had 
also taken place in Congress on state rights and national 
sovereignty between Daniel Webster, senator from Massa- 
chusetts, and Robert Y. Hayne, senator from South Caro- 
lina. The feeling created by this debate and the retaining 
of the protective features of the tariff made South Caro- 
lina more determined than ever to carry out the doctrine 
stated in her Exposition and Protest. Her state conven- 
tion declared the tariff act of 1828 to be null and void, and 
made it unlawful after February 1, 1833, for any one in 
South Carolina to pay the duties which were provided in 
that act. 

562. Action of President Jackson ; Compromise Tariff. — 
Jackson, as already stated, had no faith in the doctrine that 
the Constitution was a compact between the states, and he 
therefore did not believe that a state had the right to nul- 
lify a law of Congress. He at once prepared to enforce the 
tariff laws in South Carolina, and threatened to hang any 
one who should resist by force the collection of tariff taxes 
in that state. As a result of Jackson's firm attitude and the 
failure of the other southern states to support South Caro- 
lina, the leaders of that state suspended the operations of 
the Nullification Act which had been passed by their state 
convention. In March the tariff was still further revised. 
This compromise tariff seemed to satisfy the people of 
South Carolina. Never since that time has a state tried 
to nullify a national law. The secession of the southern 



458 Westward Expansion and Slavery 

states from the Union in i86o-r86i was not based on the 
doctrine of nullification. 

563. Other Tariff Changes. — The strong opposition of 
the South to the Tariff of Abominations led to its modifi- 
cation in 1832, and in the following year to the passage 
of a compromise tariff law which provided for the gradual 
reduction of tariff duties during a period of ten years until 
the low rates — an even twenty per cent on the value of 
the goods — imposed by the tariff of 1 816 should be reached. 
This limit provided by the compromise tariff was reached 
in 1843. At that time the Whigs had control of the 
government, and they increased the tariff duties slightly. 
But in 1846, when the Democrats again came into power, 
they made the tariff lower than it had been for thirty 
years, and during the next year reduced it still more. No 
further changes were made in the tariff until just before 
the beginning of the Civil War. 

564. Jackson's Attack on the United States Bank. — The 
first charter of the United States Bank expired in 181 1. 
The second charter, which was granted by Congress in 
18 16, would expire in 1836. Jackson had become strongly 
opposed to this bank. He claimed that it was an "un- 
American monopoly," and that the government had helped 
it to become such by placing in it the public funds, thereby 
giving it a great advantage over all other banks. He also 
claimed that the bank was interfering in politics. All these 
charges which Jackson made against the bank were very 
likely true, but it had always been of great assistance 
and convenience to the government, and had tended to 
keep the money affairs of the entire country on a sound 
basis. Although the charter of the bank did not expire 
until 1836, the enemies of Jackson who had control of 
Congress passed a bill in the early part of the campaign 



Financial Legislation : the Tariff 459 

of 1832 for renewing the charter. They did this in order 
to force Jackson either to approve or to veto the bill 
in the hope that his action might prevent his reelec- 
tion. He vetoed the bill, and the question of granting 
a new charter to the bank became the main issue of the 
campaign. 

565. The United States Bank Destroyed. —Jackson was 
reelected by a large majority, receiving more than three 
times as many electoral votes as all the other candidates 





Medal of Jackson destroying the Bank 

together. Jackson believed this large majority meant that 
the people were opposed to the bank. And after the 
trouble with South Carolina over the tariff had been settled, 
he began an active attack on the bank for the purpose 
of destroying it before its charter expired. He ordered 
the Secretary of the Treasury to deposit no more public 
money in the United States Bank or in any of its branch 
banks, and to use the public money already in them for 
the expenses of the government. Within a short time all 
the public money in the United States Bank had been used 
to pay the regular expenses of the government. Jackson 
had the surplus public funds placed in different state 



460 Westward Expansion and Slavery 

banks, and usually in those banks that were favorable to 
him. Thus several years before its charter expired Jackson 
practically destroyed the United States Bank by causing 
all the national funds to be withdrawn from it. But his 
opposition did not stop here, for, through the influence 
of the President, Congress refused in 1836 to renew the 
bank's charter. 

566. State Banks. — The distribution of the government 
money among the state banks caused a large number of 
these banks to be organized in order to secure some of 
this money. It was valuable to these banks to obtain this 
money because they had the right to loan it and to keep 
all the interest they could secure in this way. These 
state banks also had the right to make and issue paper 
money, but they were supposed to keep enough gold and 
silver on hand to redeem it. That is, when a man brought 
to a bank one hundred dollars of its paper money, the bank 
was supposed to give him for it one hundred dollars in gold 
or silver, if he so desired. As soon as the state banks re- 
ceived the government money they began to loan it to 
people in order to secure interest on it. The government 
money deposited in the banks was hard money — that is, 
gold and silver coin. The amount of paper money which 
the state banks all over the country were soon making 
was much greater than the total amount of hard money 
which they had loaned and had on hand. All this gave 
the country a large amount of money, and many people 
in all parts of the country began to borrow from the 
banks. 

567. Speculation. — Many people who borrowed money 
did not use it to carry on good, safe business, as farming 
and manufacturing, but used it for speculation — that is, 
they bought such property as land,, farm products, slaves, 



Financial Legislation : the Tariff 46 1 

and railroad bonds, not for the purpose of actually keep- 
ing them, but for the purpose of selling them in a short 
time for more than they had paid for them. The ability 
of the people to borrow money easily, together with the 
cheap price of government land in the West, the building 
of new railroads, and the splendid condition of business 
generally, caused this kind of unsafe speculation to spread 
over the entire country and to become worse and worse. 
It soon became quite plain that the banks could not re- 
deem all the paper money which they had issued. People 
who held this paper money soon found that they could not 
exchange all of it, or nearly all of it, for gold or silver. 
This caused them to look on paper money with suspicion, 
and as a result a dollar of it soon became of less value 
than a dollar of gold or silver. 

568. The Specie Circular. — The government had been 
accepting paper money in payment for public lands. Jack- 
son saw that this must be stopped, or it would result in 
loss to the government. He therefore issued an order 
that the payment for public lands must be made in gold 
and silver. This order of Jackson's is known as the 
Specie Circular, because it provided that all payments 
made to the government by its citizens must be made in 
specie — that is, in gold or silver. The Specie Circular 
issued by President Jackson caused people generally to 
become still more suspicious of the paper money pro- 
ceeding from the state banks, and caused this money to 
become of still less value. 

569. Surplus in National Treasury given to the States. — 
A few months after the Specie Circular had been issued 
another thing happened, which tended to lower still more 
the value of paper money. The national debt had all been 
paid by 1835, an d as the income from the tariff and the 



462 Westward Expansion and Slavery 

sale of public lands was greater than the expenses of the 
government, a surplus began to accumulate. By the latter 
part of 1836 this surplus had reached about forty million 
dollars, nearly all of which had been deposited in the state 
banks. As the national debt had all been paid, and as the 
government did not need this money for regular expenses, 
Congress decided to give it to the states. The Constitution 
did not pei^mit Congress to do this, so it was given to the 
states in the form of a loan, but it was understood that this 
money was never to be paid back to the national govern- 
ment. In order that each state might receive its share 
of the surplus, many of the state banks were compelled 
to give up all the government money which had been 
deposited with them. 

570. General Disturbance of Business ; Financial Panic 
of 1837. — The removal of this money from the state banks 
greatly reduced their supply of hard money, and greatly 
injured the business of the entire country. This, together 
with the Specie Circular, caused paper money to become 
almost worthless. Men at once began to take their paper 
money to the banks and ask for gold or silver in return. 
But the banks had not the gold and silver with which 
to redeem it; for, as has been stated, many of them had 
issued a far larger quantity of paper money than they 
could redeem even with the government funds which they 
had on deposit, and the sudden removal of these funds 
made their condition still worse. As a result, many of 
the state banks were compelled to close their doors. The 
value of paper money declined rapidly ; specie payments 
were everywhere suspended ; hundreds of business firms 
failed ; thousands of men and women lost everything they 
possessed ; factories were forced to suspend operations ; 
and thus financial panic swept over the country. 



Financial Legislation : the Tariff 463 



571. The Independent or Subtreasury System. — Van 
Buren became President in March, 1837, j usr - before the 
financial panic came. This panic made it plain that the 
placing of the surplus money of the government in state 
banks was a very bad plan. After giving the matter care- 
ful consideration, 
Van Buren decided 
that the government 
should own buildings 
in which to place 
its funds. In 1840 
Congress, acting 
upon the recommen- 
dation of the Presi- 
dent, passed what 
is known as the In- 
dependent Treasury 
Act. By the terms of 
this act the United 
States was enabled 
to erect in various 
states such govern- 
ment buildings as should be required in which to deposit 
the public money of the nation. This system, commonly 
known as the Subtreasury System, still exists, and has 
proven very satisfactory. It completely separated the 
financial affairs of the government from the private and 
state banks. 




Martin Van Buren 



464 Westward Expansion and Slavery 

GROWTH OF THE NATION IN TERRITORY AND 
POPULATION 

572. Need of an Outlet to the Pacific Coast. — At the 
close of the Revolution the territory of the United States 
extended from Canada to Florida, and from the Missis- 
sippi to the Atlantic. By the purchase of Louisiana, 
in 1803, an outlet to the Gulf of Mexico and a vast and 
rich territory west of the Mississippi were secured. By 
the purchase of Florida, in 18 19, the United States ex- 
tended to the Gulf of Mexico that part of her southern 
boundary which had before reached only to the northern 
line of East Florida. The great thing which remained for 
the nation to do was to expand westward and secure an 
outlet to the Pacific. Jefferson had for a long time fondly 
hoped to see this done. Even before he became President 
he had endeavored to induce several men to explore the 
Oregon country. His great desire to secure this west- 
ern country and an outlet on the Pacific was one of the 
main reasons why he was so anxious to secure Louisiana 
when he heard that Spain had ceded that territory to 
France in 1800. When Jefferson learned that France 
had secured Louisiana, he at once induced Congress to 
set aside some of the public money for the purpose of 
sending an expedition overland into the Oregon country. 
Before this expedition could be gotten ready Louisiana 
had been purchased ; but this territory did not extend to 
the Pacific, and its purchase did not directly affect the 
Oregon country. 

573. Lewis and Clark Expedition ; Claims of United States 
and England. — In the spring of 1804 the expedition for 
which Congress had voted money left the small frontier 
town of St. Louis. The party, which was in charge of 



Growth in Territory and Population 465 

Lewis and Clark, went up the Missouri and spent the win- 
ter of 1804 with the Indians. In the spring they crossed 
over the mountains, descended the Columbia, and in No- 
vember reached the Pacific. Thirteen years before this 
time, Captain Gray of Boston discovered the Columbia while 
trading with the Indians along the coast, near the mouth 
of that great river. The discovery of the Columbia by 




Lewis and Clark in Council with the Indians 
From an old print 

Gray, the explorations of Lewis and Clark, and the com- 
ing in of American settlers, which soon took place, all 
helped to give the United States the right to claim the 
Oregon Territory. During this time England had also 
been making some explorations and discoveries in the 
same locality, and because of her activity she, too, claimed 
the region. 

574. Joint Occupation of Oregon; Treaty of 1846. — By 
the Treaty of 18 18 England and the United States agreed 



466 Westward Expansion and Slavery 

that both Englishmen and Americans might settle in the 
Oregon country. This territory extended from California 
north to the parallel 54 ° 40 '. Russia claimed the terri- 
tory north of this parallel, and Spain claimed California. 
This arrangement between England and the United States 
is known as the Joint Occupation of Oregon. Either na- 
tion could bring the agreement to an end one year after 
notifying the other that it desired to do so. Although 
the joint occupation of this territory came very nearly 
causing serious trouble between the two nations, it was 
continued in effect until 1846, when a treaty was signed 
which established the present northwest boundary of the 
United States. By this treaty Canada secured an outlet 
to the Pacific, and so did the United States. Thus in 
sixty-three years the young nation had extended its terri- 
tory southward to the Gulf of Mexico and westward from 
the Mississippi to the Pacific. The part of the Pacific 
coast secured was not very long, but there was connected 
with the conditions that brought about the treaty which 
settled the Oregon question an event which was soon to 
extend the territory of the United States down the Pacific 
coast nearly a thousand miles south of Oregon. This 
event was the annexation of Texas, which took place in 

1845. 

575. Increasing Power of the Free States. — The rapid 
growth of the North in population had given the free 
states a majority in the House of Representatives. As 
population in the North was growing more rapidly than in 
the South, this majority would become larger and larger. 
Neither could the South hope to have for a much longer 
time as many votes in the Senate as the North. By the 
Missouri Compromise of 1820 the parallel of 36 30' divided 
the Louisiana Territory as regards slavery. The territory 



Growth in Territory and Population 467 

north of this line, out of which free states would be formed, 
was much larger and was being settled much faster 
than the territory south of it, out of which slave states 
would be formed. The leaders of the South saw plainly 
that it would not be long before the free states would have 
a majority in the Senate, as well as in the House of Repre- 
sentatives. This to them became a very serious question, 
because there was gradually growing up in the North a 
moral sentiment against slavery ; and the southern leaders 
naturally thought that Congress, being controlled by the 
North, would at some future time pass laws against slavery 
in the South. They were very anxious therefore to secure 
more territory out of which new slave states could be formed, 
in order that the South might have as many votes in the 
Senate as the North, and thus be able to prevent any legis- 
lation that might injure slavery. 

576. Texas adapted for Slavery ; its Settlement by- 
Americans. — The soil and climate of Texas made that 
territory well suited to slavery, and the southern people 
were determined to secure it if possible. It should be 
carefully noted, however, that it was just as natural 
for the Americans to advance into the territory of Texas 
as it was for them to advance into the territory of Ore- 
gon. Texas would no doubt have been secured by the 
United States if slavery had not existed in the South, but 
the desire of the southern leaders to secure it for the 
expansion of slavery hastened, very likely, its settlement. 
Another thing which caused the southern people to move 
into this territory was the liberal offers of land that were 
made to the Americans. The territory south of Louisiana 
and Oregon belonged to the Republic of Mexico, which, 
as already stated, was one of the many Spanish colonies 
in North and South America that became independent of 



468 Westward Expansion and Slavery 



Spain between 1810 and 1822. As soon as Mexico be- 
came an independent nation, she offered liberal grants of 
land in Texas to those Americans who would bring a cer- 
tain number of families into that country. People from 
the southern states at once began to move into Texas, 
and it began to be settled by the Americans as the west- 
ern territory east of the Mississippi was being settled 
by them. 

577. Independence of Texas ; its Annexation to the United 
States. — It was not long before the Americans in Texas 

began to have trouble 
with the government of 
Mexico. This trouble 
soon led to war be- 
tween Texas and Mex- 
ico. The war lasted 
from 1833 to 1836, and 
resulted in the inde- 
pendence of Texas. 
Texas soon applied to 
the United States for 
admission as a state. 
This brought up the 
question of slavery. 
As most of the Ameri- 
cans who had settled 
in Texas were from 
John tyler the Southj s i aV ery ex- 

isted there. For this reason the South was very anxious 
that Texas should be annexed, and for this same reason 
the North was anxious that she should not be annexed. 
If the question of slavery had not existed, Texas would 
very likely have been admitted without much delay and 




Growth in Territory and Population 469 

with but little opposition from any part of the United States. 
As the North strongly opposed the annexation of Texas 
because slavery existed there, President Van Buren would 
not make a treaty of annexation. Tyler, who became 
President when Harrison died, made such a treaty secretly 
and submitted it to the Senate for ratification. This action 
of Tyler's was strongly opposed by the Whig party which 
had elected him. The Senate rejected the treaty, and 
the annexation of Texas became the main issue in the 
presidential campaign of 1844. The platform of the 
Democratic party favored annexation. It also declared 
that the United States should take possession of all 
the Oregon country and settle that question. The state- 
ment regarding Oregon pleased many people in the 
North because they were anxious to secure that country, 
for if secured, it could be settled and would sometime be 
divided into free states. The Democratic party carried 
the election, and at once proceeded to carry out the prom- 
ises which it had made regarding Texas and Oregon. 
Texas was annexed in 1845, and the Oregon question, as 
has already been seen, was settled in 1846. 

578. The Mexican War : Causes ; Attitude of the United 
States. — The annexation of Texas soon brought on war 
between the United States and Mexico. Texas claimed 
that her boundary extended to the Rio Grande, while 
Mexico claimed it did not extend farther south than the 
Nueces River. Without really trying to settle the ques- 
tion peacefully, President Polk ordered General Taylor to 
occupy the disputed territory. Mexican soldiers opposed 
Taylor's advance, and a small battle was fought. In a 
message to Congress, Polk declared that war existed. 
Congress accepted his view of the matter, and prepara- 
tions were begun for the invasion of Mexico. This war 



47° Westward Expansion and Slavery 

on the part of the United States was unjust. Mexico 
was practically forced to fight. Texas as a part of the 
Republic of Mexico had extended only to the Nueces, and 
Mexico would naturally consider Taylor's advance across 
that river an invasion of her territory. The United States 

should at least 
have tried to 
find out exactly 
how far south 
Texas extended 
before sending 
soldiers into 
territory that 
was claimed by 
Mexico. Many 
in the North 
opposed the 
war. They 
maintained that 
it was begun 
for the purpose 
of securing 
more slave ter- 
ritory. General 

JAMES K. POLK Grant> who> ag 

a subordinate officer, fought in this war, declared when 
writing about it that it was one of the most unjust wars 
that a strong nation ever waged against a weak one. 

579. Taylor's and Scott's Campaigns ; Treaty of Peace ; 
Gadsden Purchase. — The war itself was a series of victo- 
ries for the Americans. In a campaign that lasted from 
August, 1 846, to February, 1 847, General Taylor in a series 
of battles south of the Rio Grande completely defeated 




Growth in Territory and Population 471 



the Mexican army. In a campaign which lasted from 
March to September, 1847, General Scott marched from 
Vera Cruz and captured the city of Mexico. While these 
two campaigns were going on, the Americans seized New 
Mexico and California. The treaty of peace, which brought 
the war to an end, was signed near the city of Mexico 
in February, 1848. This treaty made the Rio Grande the 




Scott's Entrance into the City of Mexico 

southern boundary of Texas, and the territory which it 
gave to the United States includes California, Nevada, 
Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, and a part of Colorado. The 
United States paid Mexico fifteen million dollars, and paid 
about three million dollars' worth of debts that Mexico 
owed American citizens. Before the boundary was finally 
settled the United States paid Mexico ten million dollars 
more and secured a little more territory than was granted 



472 Westward Expansion and Slavery 

by the terms of the treaty. This is known as the Gadsden 
Purchase, and was made in 1853. 

580. Territorial Expansion of the United States. — In a 
little less than three years and two months from January 1, 
1845, the United States had increased about one third 
in size. At the close of the Revolution the area of the 
nation was a little more than eight hundred thousand 
square miles ; by the purchase of Louisiana and Florida 
the area had increased during the period of National 
Growth and European Interference to more than two 
million square miles ; and by the annexation of Texas, the 
occupation of the Oregon Territory, and the war with 
Mexico, the United States increased its area to more than 
three million square miles. The territory of the nation 
now extended all the way across North America, and had 
an average width of more than a thousand miles. The 
outlets on the Gulf of Mexico and on the Atlantic and 
Pacific oceans were magnificent. 

581. The Growth of the Nation in Population during the 
period of Westward Expansion and Slavery was greater 
than its growth in territory. In 1828 there were about 
twelve million people living in the United States. By i860 
this number had increased to more than thirty-one millions. 
During this period about five million people came from 
Europe. Nearly all of these settled in the northern states. 
The rapid growth of the West had continued. The new 
states formed in the great rich central plain were Arkansas, 
1836; Michigan, 1837; Texas, 1845; Iowa, 1846; Wiscon- 
sin, 1848; and Minnesota, 1858. Florida became a state 
in 1845. 

582. Settlement of Oregon. — The unusual thing about 
the growth of population during this period as compared 
with previous periods was the settlement of Oregon and 



Growth in Territory and Population 473 

California. Before this period those who settled in the 
West moved into the territory next to that already occu- 
pied. In settling California and Oregon they passed over 
more than a thousand miles of country that had not yet 
been occupied by white people. After the Lewis and 
Clark expedition American traders began to go into the 
Oregon Territory, but only a very few people had gone 







An Emigrant Train 

During a halt the wagons were frequently arranged as here shown, for greater 
security against attack 

there to live before 1843. About this time many began 
to cross the plains and mountains in wagons. After the 
Oregon question was adjusted in 1846, and the people 
knew exactly how much of that territory belonged to the 
United States, the number going there to live increased 
rapidly. In 1859 the southwest part of the Oregon Ter- 
ritory became the state of Oregon, and the remainder of 
this territory was organized and called the territory of 
Washington. 



474 Westward Expansion and Slavery 

583. Settlement of California. — While the Oregon Ter- 
ritory was being settled, California was being settled 
still faster. Before the war with Mexico there were 
not, however, many Americans in this country. By 
1845 Fremont had made two trips overland, and at that 
time there were perhaps several hundred Americans in 
California. Before the few Americans in the Sacramento 
Valley knew that war existed between the United States 
and Mexico, they heard that the Mexican commander was 
coming up from Southern California to attack them. 
When the Americans heard that they were going to 
be attacked, some of them marched on the Mexican fort 
at Sonoma and captured it. They then declared the 
country independent of Mexico and named the new nation 
the California Republic, although it is usually known as 
the Bear Flag Republic. Soon the news of the war with 
Mexico arrived, and the United States army and navy took 
possession of California. 

584. Discovery of Gold in California. — In January, 1848, 
a few days before the signing of the treaty of peace ending 
the Mexican War, gold was discovered a short distance from 
Sacramento, which was then called Sutter's Fort. This 
discovery of gold created great excitement. During the 
next two years a hundred thousand people went to Califor- 
nia, and on September 9, 1850, she became a state. The 
admission of California is closely connected with the 
slavery question, and will be discussed more fully under the 
next topic. It is interesting to note that until Oregon was 
admitted to the Union in 1859, California stood alone on 
the Pacific coast, more than a thousand miles from all her 
sister states except Texas, and almost a thousand miles 
from the settled part of that state. 



The Slavery Question 475 

THE SLAVERY QUESTION 

585. Slavery in the North. — During this period the 
question of slavery was very closely connected with 
the growth of the nation in territory and population. 
When the Missouri Compromise was passed, most people 
thought that the slavery question had been settled ; but 
it soon became plain that this compromise secured peace 
on this question only for a few years. After 1830 the 
issue of slavery became more and more serious with 
each succeeding year, and it finally brought the period 
of Westward Expansion and Slavery to an end by 
plunging the nation into civil war. The fact that slaves 
could not be used with great profit in the North had 
caused the gradual abolition of slavery in the northern 
states. When Washington was first elected President, all 
the northern states except New York, New Jersey, and 
Delaware had either abolished slavery or had made pro- 
vision for gradually freeing the slaves. In 1799 New 
York took similar action, and in 1804 New Jersey made 
provision for gradually freeing all her slaves. 

586. Slavery in the South. — Both Washington and 
Jefferson had hoped to see slavery abolished in all 
sections of the country, and under their advice the 
legislature of Virginia came very near abolishing it 
in that state, the bill so providing being defeated by 
only a small majority. Had not improved weaving ma- 
chinery and the cotton gin been invented, it is quite 
likely that the southern states would have gradually 
abolished slavery. After the Revolution the South began 
to raise a larger variety of farm products, and was just 
getting ready to develop other industries in which slave 
labor could not have been used to great advantage. All 



476 Westward Expansion and Slavery 

this tended to increase in the South the growing senti- 
ment in favor of abolition. But the invention between 
1765 and 1786 of improved weaving machinery created 
an immense demand for cotton, and the invention of the 
cotton gin in 1793 made it possible to supply this de- 
mand. This made slave labor more valuable in the 
southern states, and fastened slavery more firmly on the 
South than the extensive productions of tobacco, rice, 
and indigo had done before the Revolution. After 1800 
the southern states devoted more and more of their time 
and energy to the production of cotton, and as a natu- 
ral result slavery became more and more firmly rooted in 
the industrial and social life of the South. The southern 
people began to consider slavery a natural and normal 
condition. The fact that the slaves were black, unedu- 
cated, and in many cases almost savage, had a great deal 
to do in causing the southern people to look on slavery in 
that light. 

587. Growth of Antislavery Feeling in the North; the 
Abolitionists. — In the North, where the people were not 
accustomed to slaves and to slavery, there began to grow 
up gradually the idea that slavery was wrong. The gradual 
growth of this idea in the North marks the beginning of the 
final struggle over slavery. 

For about eleven years after the Missouri Compromise 
in 1820 the slavery question was very quiet. But in 1831 
the few people in the North who had come to believe that 
slavery was wrong began to attack it and to demand that 
it be abolished in all the states. Because they wished 
to have slavery abolished, they were called Abolitionists. 
The number of Abolitionists in the North was not very 
large, even at the beginning of the Civil War ; but this 
small number became very active. In 1831 William 



The Slavery Question 477 

Lloyd Garrison established a paper in Boston. He called 
his paper The Liberator, and printed it for the purpose 
of attacking slavery. Abolition societies were formed 
throughout the North. The Abolitionists advocated the 
immediate freeing of all the slaves, and circulated pam- 
phlets, papers, and magazines throughout the United 
States setting forth their doctrines. They did not have 
very much success, however, in inducing the people to 
think as they did on this question. The slaveholders in 
the South were enraged by their activity, and did not 
seem to realize that their number in the North was very 
small. 

588. Defense of Slavery. — As the Abolitionists claimed 
that slavery was wrong, the southern people were virtually 
forced to maintain that it was right and just. They claimed 
that slavery was a positive good to the negro, because in- 
stead of remaining a savage as did his brother in Africa, 
the slave in the South became a Christian, and became 
civilized. Many of the southern ministers claimed that 
the Bible sanctioned slavery, and that the people of the 
North should not oppose it. In 1831 a slave insurrection, 
which resulted in the death of about sixty whites and one 
hundred negroes, broke out in Virginia. The southern 
people claimed that this was due to the doctrine of the 
Abolitionists. 

589. "Abolition" Publications in the Mails. — Many 
began to claim that the Abolitionists should not be per- 
mitted to send their papers and pamphlets through the 
mail. A bill was even introduced in Congress, with the 
full approval of President Jackson, to prohibit the send- 
ing of such " incendiary literature " through the mails. 
Although this bill did not pass, it showed the strength 
of the feeling that prompted it. Some of the antislavery 



478 Westward Expansion and Slavery 

literature was actually removed from the mails and then 
destroyed. 

590. In the North the Feeling against the Abolitionists 
was almost as strong as in the South. The great mass 
of the northern people denounced them severely. Their 
meetings were broken up ; their printing presses were 
destroyed ; and their leaders were threatened with death, 
Lovejoy, an Abolition editor, being actually killed in Illi- 
nois in 1837 while trying to prevent his printing press 
from being destroyed by a mob. In New England the 
opposition to the Abolitionists was very strong. Garrison 
was led through the streets with a rope around his body, 
and schoolhouses which were used for the purpose of 
educating negroes were torn down and totally destroyed. 
All this indicates plainly that at that time the great mass 
of the northern people cared very little for the negro, and 
that the moral sentiment against slavery in the North was 
very weak. 

591. Antislavery Petitions before Congress. — One phase 
of opposition to the Abolitionists was soon to change the 
attitude of many of the northern people toward slavery. 
The Abolitionists sent many petitions to Congress against 
slavery. At first these petitions were printed, referred to 
the proper committee, and then nothing more was done 
with them. The members of Congress from the South, 
however, soon became so strongly opposed to them, and so 
angry at the Abolitionists for constantly attacking slavery 
and agitating the question, that in 1836 they secured in 
both the House and Senate the passage of resolutions 
that prevented the printing of any petitions that referred 
in any way to slavery, or the referring of any such peti- 
tion to a committee. These resolutions were called Gag 
Resolutions. Ex-President John Quincy Adams, who was 



The Slavery Question 479 

then an old man, was a member of the House of Repre- 
sentatives. He made a noble fight against this attack on 
the right of petition. The angry debates on this question 
in Congress directed the attention of the entire nation to 
the matter. 

592. The Passage of the Gag Resolutions was practically 
a refusal on the part of Congress to receive petitions from 
the people, and was therefore a direct violation of the Con- 
stitution of the United States. It was a violation of a 
right held especially dear by English-speaking people, 
because it was one of those rights which had cost them 
centuries of bloodshed and struggle to secure. The great 
mass of the northern people had little love for the Aboli- 
tionists, but they were thoroughly aroused at this inter- 
ference with the right of petition, and it caused them to 
give more attention to the slavery question and to what 
the Abolitionists had to say. The action of Congress on 
these slavery petitions, therefore, tended to create a strong 
feeling in the North against the attitude of the South on 
the slavery question, and the sending in of these petitions 
by the few Abolitionists united the South in strong opposi- 
tion to the North. 

593. Preservation of Balance between Free States and 
Slave States ; Wilmot Proviso. — The attempt of the Abo- 
litionists, and of others in the North, to convince the people 
of the United States that slavery was morally wrong, caused 
the southern people to think that by and by a majority of 
the northern people would come to believe that slavery 
should not exist. This caused the people of the South to 
believe that if the free states should get control of the 
Senate as well as of the House of Representatives, Con- 
gress would by and by pass laws for the purpose of inter- 
fering with slavery in the South. The southern leaders 



480 Westward Expansion and Slavery 

were therefore very anxious to secure more slave territory 
in order that a slave state might be admitted to the Union 
with every free state, and thus prevent the North from 
getting control of the Senate. Up to 1850 there had 
always been just as many slave states as free states. 
When California, in 1849, applied for admission as a free 
state, the southern leaders were determined that it should 
not be admitted, because its admission would give the free 
states control of the Senate, and because they wished slave 
states to be formed out of the territory secured from Mex- 
ico. They knew that unless slave states were formed out 
of most of this territory, it would be only a question of 
time when the number of free states would far outnumber 
the slave states. The question as to whether slavery should 
or should not exist in the territory secured from Mexico 
was first discussed when the bill to provide money to pay 
Mexico for this territory was before Congress. Representa- 
tive Wilmot wished to amend this bill so as to provide that 
slavery could not exist in any of the territory bought with 
this money. His amendment, which is known as the Wil- 
mot Proviso, was defeated, but its discussion attracted 
general attention to the question of extending slavery into 
the territory secured from Mexico. 

594. Feeling in North and South over Extension of Slav- 
ery into Western Territory. — By this time many people in 
the North were determined that slavery should not be 
extended into any more of the western territory except into 
that part of the Louisiana Territory south of the parallel 36 
30', as provided in the Missouri Compromise. Under these 
circumstances, the discussion over the question of admitting 
California caused feeling in the North and in the South to 
become so bitter that threats of disunion were made in 
both sections, as well as in Congress. In addition to de- 



The Slavery Question 



481 



manding that slavery should be permitted to extend into 
any part of the western territory, the South demanded 
the passage of a fugitive slave law that would practically 
compel the people of the North to help capture the slaves 
who might escape 

into the free states jr 

from the slave 
states. The 

North, in addi- 
tion to demand- 
ing that slavery 
should not be per- 
mitted to extend 
into any more of 
the western terri- 
tory, demanded 
that slavery 
should be abol- 
ished in the Dis- 
trict of Columbia. 
595. Compro- 
mise of 1850. — ■ 
As the debates in 
Congress over these questions became more and more 
bitter, both Webster and Clay became alarmed for the 
safety of the nation. They introduced, urged, and secured 
the adoption of compromise measures on the ground that 
the Union was in danger of breaking up. These meas- 
ures are known as the Compromise of 1850, and, in sub- 
stance, are as follows : — 

1. California was admitted as a free state, while Utah and 
New Mexico were organized as territories without 
any provision as to slavery. This practically nulli- 




Henry Clay 



482 Westward Expansion and Slavery 

fied and repealed the Missouri Compromise ; for 
while that measure was passed for the purpose of 
settling the slavery question in the Louisiana Terri- 
tory, it was but natural that the parallel of 36 30' 
should be considered as extending westward with the 
acquisition of new territory, as the boundary line 
between free and slave territory. 

2. The slave trade was prohibited in the District of 

Columbia. The fact that slavery was not abolished 
in this District after the question of doing so had 
been discussed tended to establish it there more 
firmly than ever. 

3. A strict Fugitive Slave Law was enacted. This law 

enabled a man from the South to come into a 
free state and claim that any negro living there 
was his slave. A negro thus accused of being a 
runaway slave was not permitted a trial by jury. 
If a man swore that a certain negro was his slave, 
that settled the matter. Officers in the free states 
were supposed to help capture and return runaway 
slaves. 
596. " Uncle Tom's Cabin;" Fugitive Slave Law. — 
As in the case of the Missouri Compromise thirty years 
before, many thought that the Compromise of 1850 would 
settle the slavery question. But it was a temporary meas- 
ure only, and secured scarcely a lull in a question that 
was becoming more and more serious. " Uncle Tom's 
Cabin " appeared about this time, and although this book 
was an unjust statement regarding the actual and normal 
condition of slavery, it had a strong influence in creating 
a feeling in the North against the entire slavery system. 
The Fugitive Slave Law also really made matters worse. 
The South seems to have made a special effort to enforce 



The Slavery Question 



483 



this law, and thus to have unnecessarily irritated the people 
of the North by keeping before them constantly the worst 
phase of slavery. The determined attempt of the South 
to enforce this law caused the North to become bit- 
terly opposed to it, and to try to prevent it from being 
enforced. The 
Abolitionists and 
others established 
a regular system, 
called the Under- 
ground Railroad, 
for the purpose of 
assisting the run- 
away slaves to es- 
cape into Canada, 
where the laws pro- 
tected them from 
capture. 

597. Kansas-Ne- 
braska Bill. — 
While this bitter 
feeling was at its 
height, Senator 
Douglas from Illinois introduced into Congress, in 1854, a 
bill which is known as the Kansas-Nebraska Bill. This 
bill as finally passed expressly repealed the Missouri Com- 
promise, organized the territories of Kansas and Nebraska, 
and provided that the question of slavery in these terri- 
tories should be decided by a vote of the settlers when 
they applied for admission to the Union. This principle, 
as used in connection with the slavery question, is known 
as Popular or Squatter Sovereignty. This meant that the 
question of slavery in a state or territory was to be decided 




Franklin Pierce 



484 Westward Expansion and Slavery 

by a vote of the people in that state or territory. The 
debates on the Kansas-Nebraska bill aroused strong feel- 
ing in the North, and its passage brought the slavery 
question to the front more prominently than ever before in 
our history, because it opened up all the western territory 
to slavery. 

598. The Struggle in Kansas. — The first result was civil 
war in Kansas. The South was determined that Kansas 
should become a slave state, while the North was deter- 
mined that it should become a free state. Both sections, 
therefore, rushed settlers into the territory in order to 
have a majority of the votes when it came to voting on the 
question. Most of the settlers from the North intended to 
remain in Kansas and make it their home ; many of those 
from the South came in for the special purpose of carrying 
the election for slavery, and intended after that was accom- 
plished to return to their old homes. The bitter struggle 
which followed between the opposing factions resulted in 
the death of many people. The murder and lawlessness 
continued in Kansas until the territory was admitted as a 
free state in 1861. This state of affairs kept the entire 
nation aroused on the slavery question. 

599. The Dred Scott Decision. — When the feeling over 
this struggle was the strongest, the Supreme Court of the 
United States made a decision that still further aroused 
the North. This decision was made in 1857 and is known 
as the Dred Scott Decision. Dred Scott was a slave who 
was taken by his master into the free state of Illinois, and 
then into territory which by the Missouri Compromise was 
to be forever free. On his return to Missouri he sued for his 
freedom on the ground that slavery could not exist on free 
soil, and that therefore his residence in the free North had 
made him free. In deciding the case the Supreme Court 



The Slavery Question 



4 8j 



of the United States held that a slave was not a citizen, 
but property, and therefore had no rights in the courts as 
a person. This meant that neither the Congress of the 
United States nor the legislature of a state or territory 
could interfere with slavery. It meant that slavery could 
legally exist in all the northern states and in all the western 




The Supreme Court Chamber 



territory. The Kansas-Nebraska Bill and the Dred Scott 
Decision seemed at the time to be great victories for the 
South, because they threw open all the western territory to 
slavery. It was soon to be seen, however, that so far as 
the South was concerned, they were not victories, but de- 
feats. This decision, the bill, and the bloody struggle 
in Kansas which the latter caused, had so aroused the 
people of the North that they were about ready to decide 
that slavery should not be extended into any more of the 



486 Westward Expansion and Slavery 

western territory. This decision when once made was to 
prove final. 

600. The Lincoln-Douglas Debates. — In 1858, one year 
after the rendering of the famous Dred Scott Decision, 
Senator Douglas, the author of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 
was a candidate for reelection from Illinois. Abraham Lin- 
coln was the candidate of the young Republican party for 
the same position. The result of the campaign between the 
Democrats and Republicans for control of the state legis- 
lature promised to be close. If the Democrats secured a 
majority in the state legislature, Douglas would be elected 
United States senator ; but if the Republicans secured a 
majority, Lincoln would be elected. Under these circum- 
stances both Douglas and Lincoln naturally took an active 
part in the state campaign. They finally arranged to 
hold joint debates in different parts of the state. These 
debates are known as the Lincoln-Douglas Debates. 
They were very important because the speakers dealt with 
the slavery question and created a profound impression 
throughout the nation. Both men discussed the question 
in a most able manner. Lincoln was frank in expressing his 
strong opposition to the further spread of slavery into any 
part of the western territory, and he held that the Dred 
Scott Decision was contrary to the Constitution of the 
United States. He intimated that this decision had been 
made for the purpose of assisting slavery. He was opposed 
to the principle of Popular or Squatter Sovereignty, and 
held that Congress should absolutely forbid the further 
extension of slavery. He also expressed the belief that the 
slavery question would not be finally settled until the nation 
had become either all free or all slave. In these debates, 
Douglas was forced to defend the principle of Popular 
Sovereignty, and in doing so he was forced to oppose the 



The Slavery Question 487 

Dred Scott Decision, because that decision denied the right 
of the people in a state or territory to decide the question 
of slavery by a vote. The result of the campaign gave the 
Democrats a majority in the state legislature, and Douglas 
was reelected United States senator ; but his opposition to 
the Dred Scott Decision during the campaign caused the 
Democrats of the South to refuse to support him when he 
was nominated for President in i860. Lincoln's frank and 
able speeches during the campaign attracted the attention 
of the entire nation, and did much to cause the people of 
the North gradually to accept the views which he held 
on the slavery question. 

601. Presidential Campaign of i860. — In i860 the Re- 
publicans nominated Lincoln for President. The Republi- 
can platform denied specifically any intention to interfere 
with slavery in the South, but demanded that Congress 
prohibit it in all the western territory. Thus the Repub- 
licans expressed their disbelief in the Dred Scott Decision, 
because that decision denied to Congress the right to inter- 
fere with the spread of slavery. The regular Democratic 
convention nominated Douglas, but the southern Demo- 
crats withdrew from the convention and nominated Breck- 
enridge because the northern Democrats would not declare 
that slavery was morally right, and that Congress should 
protect it in the territories. Another convention com- 
posed of men from the different parties met and nomi- 
nated Bell. 

602. Election of Lincoln; Republican Position on Slavery; 
Secession of South Carolina. — The campaign resulted in the 
election of Lincoln. Lincoln's position on the slavery ques- 
tion had been made plain in the Lincoln-Douglas Debates, 
in which he declared that he was emphatically opposed to 
the further extension of slavery, and that in his opinion the 



488 Westward Expansion and Slavery 

nation must in time become all free or all slave. The majority 
of the people in the North agreed with him. While the 
Republican party and Lincoln specifically stated that they 
did not intend or desire to interfere with slavery in those 
states where it already existed, the South believed that the 
election of Lincoln meant that slavery would not be further 
extended. The southern leaders, therefore, considered it 
necessary, in order to preserve slavery, to withdraw from 
the Union. In December, i860, the state of South Caro- 
lina formally withdrew from the Union and at once took 
steps to persuade the other slave states to do likewise. 
Her withdrawal marks the beginning of the American 
Civil War. 

603. Review and Conclusions. — It is true, perhaps, to 
say that the careful and thoughtful student of American 
history is forced to the conclusion that while slavery was 
the direct cause of the Civil War, the topography, climate, 
and soil of the South, and certain industrial conditions, 
caused the existence of slavery in the southern states. 
The topography, climate, and soil of the South caused 
the southern people, during colonial times, to raise large 
quantities of tobacco, rice, and indigo. The extensive 
production of these staples made slave labor very profit- 
able, and caused the number of slaves in the South to 
increase rapidly. As slave labor could not be used with 
great profit in raising a variety of crops, or in manufactur- 
ing, the South did not develop along these lines daring 
colonial times. At the close of the Revolution, when it 
looked as though conditions would cause the South to 
begin manufacturing and to begin raising a variety of 
crops, and thus to make slave labor less valuable and 
finally to cause the abolition of slavery, the invention of 
improved weaving machinery created an immense demand 



The Slavery Question 489 

for cotton, and the invention of the cotton gin made it 
possible to supply this demand. As the climate and soil 
of the South were specially suited to the production of 
cotton, the southern people, under the circumstances, 
naturally turned their entire attention to its produc- 
tion. As slave labor was specially suited to raising 
cotton, the demand for slaves increased as the production 
of cotton increased, and the question of the peaceful 
abolition of slavery in the South was dropped for the time 
being. How slavery in one section and free labor in the 
other caused the industrial and the social conditions of 
the South and the North to develop along different lines 
has already been explained. The quarrels and disputes 
which slavery caused between the North and the South, and 
which finally led to civil war, have also been explained. 
At this point it is interesting to ask ourselves this ques- 
tion : If during colonial times the colonists who settled in 
the North had settled in the South, and those who settled 
in the South had settled in the North, would slavery have 
continued to exist in the South and would it have died out 
as it did in the North ? The chances are that slavery would 
have continued to exist in the South and would not have 
done so in the North. In other words, the topography, 
climate, and soil of the two sections, and not the character 
of their people, controlled this question. 

604. Probable Development of American History under 
Different Conditions. — While speculations of this kind are 
not very valuable, it is also interesting to consider what the 
result might have been if the South had been satisfied to 
restrict slavery to the cotton-producing states and the border 
slave states, and not have attempted to extend it into the 
western territory. By so doing, by not insisting on a Fugi- 
tive Slave Law, and by paying no attention to the attacks of 



49° Westward Expansion and Slavery 

the few Abolitionists in the North, the South could have kept 
the slavery question comparatively quiet. Under such con- 
ditions the chances are that slavery would not have caused 
a war, because when the Civil War began very few people 
in the North wished to interfere with slavery in the slave 
states ; they were simply opposed to its further extension 
and annoyed at the constant agitation of the question. It 
is also quite probable that had slavery existed thus quietly 
in the South, most of the southern states would have 
abolished it by 1900. Slavery was causing the South to 
remain poor as compared with the North. It had pre- 
vented the growth of cities and manufactures. The slave 
states in i860 did not contain half as many whites as did 
the free states. While the natural resources of the South 
were very great, she could not hope to develop them and 
to become really prosperous as long as slavery existed. 
Some of the southern people began to see this, and they 
began to say so both in writing and speaking. If there 
had been no dispute between the North and the South 
over slavery, there is no doubt that this number would 
have gradually increased. The fact that fewer than one 
third of the white voters in the slave states owned slaves 
might have caused this number to increase rapidly, when 
once the southern people began to see plainly that slavery 
was a great injury to the South. Under such circumstances 
it seems reasonable to suppose that the southern states in 
time would have abolished slavery of their own accord, if 
the slavery question could have been kept quiet in the way 
indicated above. 



Institutional Life 49 1 

INSTITUTIONAL LIFE 

605. Growth along Institutional Lines, 1828-1860. — 

During the period from about 1828 to i860 the growth 
along institutional lines in the United States was remark- 
able and very important. This was really true, how- 
.ever, only of the North and West, for in the South 
there was very little change in the five institutions, their 
conditions remaining almost stationary except in a few 
respects. In the North and West the changes in indus- 
trial conditions were great and very important. In both 
these sections there were also some important changes 
in the institutions of society, government, religion, and 
education. 

606. Industrial Development ; Phases and Results. — In 
spite of the panic of 1837, ar >d the slighter financial de- 
pression which occurred in 1857, the period of Westward 
Expansion and Slavery was one of wonderful industrial 
advancement for the nation as a whole. Foreign immigra- 
tion, improvements in machinery of nearly all kinds, and 
the great improvement in means of transportation and com- 
munication, together with the opening up of the country 
which this caused, were all factors in this great industrial 
advance. All these things resulted in the building up of 
great manufacturing and commercial interests, in the build- 
ing of cities, and in the development of new industries. 
The South did not have her share in this general indus- 
trial advance. White labor was unable to compete with 
slave labor, a fact which not only caused foreign immi- 
grants to go into the North and Northwest, but also 
caused many of the white laborers to leave their old homes 
and to go into the North, where free labor prevailed. 
Free labor is necessary for advancement along commer- 



492 Westward Expansion and Slavery 

cial and manufacturing lines, and hence the South was 
prevented from developing its immense natural resources 
along these lines. The only important changes in the 
industrial conditions of the South during this period were 
the continued growth of the cotton industry and the firmer 
establishment of the slavery system. The difference in 
population in the North and the South is good evidence 
of the difference in the advance in industrial conditions. 
The northern free states in i860 outnumbered the south- 
ern slaveholding states in white population by about ten 
millions, or more than two to one. Since agriculture tends 
to scatter population, and manufacturing and commerce 
tend to centralize it, many cities sprang up in the North, 
but very few in the South. 

607. Roads, Canals, and Steamboats. — No advance made 
during this period was of so much importance to the nation 
as the improvement in the means of transportation and 
communication. At the end of the period of National 
Growth and European Interference in 1828, the first 
attempts to build railroads were just beginning to be 
made. During that period the people had devoted much 
of their attention and money to building canals and roads, 
in order to secure better means of transportation and com- 
munication between the different sections of the country, 
and especially between the East and the West. The im- 
provement in roads and canals, together with the great 
value to transportation which resulted from the invention 
of the steamboat, had made the means of transportation 
and communication much better by 1828 than they were 
in 1800. 

608. Probable Result if the Railroad and the Telegraph 
had not Come into Use. — But however much canals an'd 
roads and steamboat navigation might have been improved, 



Institutional Life 493 

the extensive territory of the nation could not have been 
well held together under one government, nor its vast 
wealth and resources thoroughly developed, if much better 
means of transportation and communication had not been 
provided. The vast areas of rich and fertile land which 
were at a considerable distance from navigable rivers could 
not have been developed to any great extent, because the 
cost of getting the produce to market would have been too 
great. If the means of transportation and communication 
had remained the same as they were in 1828, those people 
who in the future might be living in the great central plain 
west of the Mississippi would have very little business or 
social relations with those living on the Atlantic coast ; and 
those living on the Pacific coast would have still less with 
all those living east of the Rocky Mountains. This would 
have tended to cause the different sections of the country 
gradually to drift apart, and might have resulted in the 
forming of several nations out of the present territory of 
the United States. This last, perhaps, is a rather extreme 
statement ; but when we remember that if it were not for 
the railroad, it would require a tiresome journey of months 
for a person on the Pacific coast to reach Washington or 
New York or Boston, it becomes plain that some sections 
of the country would have had very little in common with 
some of the other sections. 

609. Profound Effect of the Railroad and the Telegraph 
on Political, Industrial, and Social Conditions. — The rail- 
road and the telegraph were, therefore, of the very greatest 
importance to the political, to the industrial, and to the 
social life of the nation. So far as business and govern- 
ment are concerned, the nation is smaller to-day than was 
the state of New York or the state of Pennsylvania before 
the railroad and the telegraph were used as means of trans- 



494 Westward Expansion and Slavery 

portation and communication. Since the telegraph came 
into general use it requires but a few minutes to send a 
message from California to Maine, and but a short time to 
send one around the world. Where before it required 
months to cross the continent, it now requires but a few 
days, and manufactured goods and farm products can be 
quickly sent from almost every part of the nation to the 
markets of the world. The railroads have caused the rich 
lands away from the navigable rivers to be settled up almost 
as rapidly as those near these rivers. Men with money have 
built railroads out into the wild country where scarcely any- 
body lived, knowing well that the people would soon follow, 
settle on the lands, and thus create good business for the 
roads. The railroads, therefore, have been a very strong 
factor in breaking down the feeling of state rights and sec- 
tionalism, and in creating among the people a deep feeling 
of love and patriotism for the nation as a whole. They 
have done this by causing the business of the entire nation 
to become closely related, and by enabling many of the 
people of each section of the country to travel a great deal 
and thus to become acquainted and friendly with the people 
of the other sections. As a result local customs, local habits, 
and local feeling have ceased largely to exist. Even a new 
style of dress will often be worn in all parts of the nation 
within a short time after it is first introduced, whereas if the 
railroad did not exist, it would never be worn at all in some 
sections of the country. In order to get a better idea of 
the importance of the railroad and the telegraph, it is well 
to stop and consider what the result would be if they were 
all to be destroyed and no more were to be built. One 
result would be the immediate destruction of almost half 
the prosperity of the nation. Millions of people would be 
compelled to move at once, or else starve to death. The 



Institutional Life 



495 



value of the railroads and the telegraph to the life of the 
nation and to the prosperity of the entire world can hardly 
be overestimated. They must, therefore, be placed among 
the very greatest benefits ever secured by mankind. 

610. Progress of Railroad Building. — The first railroads 
in the United States were planned in the year 1827, and 
during the next year work was begun on several lines. 




An Early Railroad Train 



In 1828 work was begun on a railroad which was de- 
signed to connect Baltimore with the West. It was called 
the Baltimore and Ohio, and was intended to carry both 
freight and passengers. The rails used on the first roads 
consisted of wood, and the wagonlike cars or coaches 
were drawn by horses. The first engines or locomotives 
were made in England. Several were soon brought over 
to the United States, and in 1829 one was put in use on 
the Baltimore and Ohio road, where iron instead of wooden 
rails were being used. From this time on the people paid 
less attention to the building of canals and wagon roads, 



496 Westward Expansion and Slavery 

and turned their attention more and more to the construc- 
tion of railroads. With each succeeding year the railroads 
constantly improved, and the means of travel and of trans- 
porting goods became better and better. In 1850 there 
were more than seven thousand miles of railroads in the 
United States, and by i860 the number of miles had in- 
creased to about thirty thousand. Thus the different sec- 
tions of the country were being brought closer and closer 
together. Just before i860 the question of building a rail- 
road to the Pacific coast was taken up by the people. The 
national government loaned more than fifty-five million 
dollars to the corporation that undertook to construct 
it, and gave also much valuable land. In 1869 this road 
was completed, and the long distance between California 
and the East was at last overcome. In addition to the 
great improvements in transportation which the building 
of railroads brought about, the improvement in the steam- 
boat during this period made steamboat transportation 
much better and faster. In most of the larger cities street 
horse cars also came into general use during this time. 

611. The Telegraph. — While the railroad did a very 
great service in securing rapid means of communication, 
the invention of the telegraph almost annihilated space 
between nearly all the civilized parts of the world. In 
1837 Samuel F. B. Morse secured his first patent on the 
telegraph instrument. Then he began his slow but sure 
struggle to put the telegraph into successful operation. 
By the assistance of thirty thousand dollars granted by 
Congress he put into successful operation between Balti- 
more and Washington, in 1844, the first telegraph line in 
the world. After this success the construction of telegraph 
lines proceeded rapidly, and nearly all the large cities were 
soon connected. In 1858, after two attempts had resulted 



Institutional Life 



497 




in failure, a telegraph line, called a submarine cable, was 
put into successful operation between America and Europe, 
but after a few weeks it 
failed to work. In 1868, 
however, another cable 
was laid between America 
and Europe, and this con- 
tinued to work success- 
fully. Thus, so far as 
communication was con- 
cerned, the Old World 
and the New World had 
become practically one. 
People in America could 
read while eating break- 
fast what had happened 
in Europe the day before. 
The successful operation 
of the railroad and the telegraph indicated plainly that the 
forces of nature were being made to contribute more and 
more to the prosperity and happiness of mankind. 

612. Reaper, Threshing Machine, and Sewing Machine. - — 
While the railroad and the telegraph constituted the most 
important business achievements of this period, they were 
by no means the only important ones. There were many 
inventions which affected profoundly the industrial growth 
of the nation. Congress established the patent office in 
1790. Between that time and i860 more than forty-three 
thousand patents had been issued, more than thirty thou- 
sand of them being issued between 1840 and i860. Since 
1840 the American people have led the world in the matter 
of inventions. Among the more important ones which 
they made before i860 were the sewing machine, the 
2 K 



Samuel F. B. Morse 



498 Westward Expansion and Slavery 



reaper, and the threshing machine. Howe secured the 
first patent for his sewing machine in 1846. During 
the next fifteen years this machine was made so workable 
that it brought about a marked change in the cost of all 
those things that had to be sewed, and especially was this 
true in regard to clothes. Before the sewing machine was 
invented, all stitching had to be done by hand. Hand 

sewing was slow and 
expensive. The sewing 
machine did away with a 
large amount of this hand 
work. This greatly les- 
sened the cost of clothing 
and other things which 
had formerly been sewed 
by hand, and increased 
the output of all these 
articles. The invention 
of the„ reaper and the 
threshing machine made 
fully as great a change 
in the raising of grain as 
the sewing machine had 
done in the making of all 
those things that had to be sewed. McCormick secured 
the first patent on his reaper in 1831, and the first threshing 
machine came into use about the same time. Before the 
reaper and the threshing machine were invented, all the 
wheat raised had to be cut with the hand sickle or 
the scythe, and the grains had to be removed from the 
wheat heads by placing the straw on a floor and pounding 
it with sticks called flails, or by driving cattle or horses 
over it. By 1845 the reaper and the threshing machine 




Elias Howe 



Institutional Life 



499 




The First McCormick Reaper 



were coming into general use, and the old slow and expen- 
sive methods of cutting and threshing grain were rapidly 
disappearing. In 
many other lines 
of industry old 
methods of work, 
and old kinds of 
machinery used 
for manufactured 
goods, were dis- 
placed by the 



more important 
of the more than 
thirty-five thou- 
sand inventions 

made by the Americans during this period, and by some 
of the other important inventions made by the people of 
Europe, especially by those of England. 

613. Rubber and Iron Goods ; Coal ; Gas. — It was dur- 
ing this period that Goodyear discovered the process by 
which raw rubber could be used in the manufacture of 
goods. The result has been the manufacture of an im- 
mense line of rubber goods, many of which are almost 
absolutely necessary to present industrial life. The ad- 
vance in the manufacture of iron goods was also very im- 
portant. A large number of new things were made from 
iron, and iron goods came into more general use for practi- 
cal purposes. The iron industry was greatly benefited by 
the discovery that hard or anthracite coal could be used for 
heating purposes. This coal displaced wood not only for 
the purpose of producing the heat necessary for the manu- 
facture of iron goods, but also for home use. It was dur- 
ing this period that gas was first used for purposes of 



500 Westward Expansion and Slavery 

lighting. Gas began to be used for lighting streets and 
houses in England about 1813, but it was not used for this 
purpose in the United States until after 1828. The use 
of gas for lighting purposes was quite important, because 
kerosene and the kerosene lamp did not come into use in 
England until about 1848, and it was later than this that 
they were adopted in the United States. 

614. Summary — Wonderful Progress in Inventions and 
Discoveries. — Many of the other inventions made during 
this time might be discussed, but it becomes plain from what 
has already been said about inventions and discoveries, and 
the improvements in means of transportation and com- 
munication, that the world made greater progress along 
such lines during the period from about 1828 to i860 than 
during all the years before that time. It will be seen later 
that the advance made along these same lines since the 
Civil War has also been of the very greatest importance. 

615. Agriculture. — The production of cotton continued 
to be the leading occupation in the South, and came to 
absorb, more and more, the time and energy of all the 
people south of the border slave states. In the border 
slave states and in the North a large variety of crops con- 
tinued to be raised. Virginia continued to lead the other 
states in the production of tobacco. In the northern part 
of the West the production of wheat and corn increased 
enormously. The invention of the reaper, the threshing 
machine, and improvements in other farming machinery 
were of immense value to agriculture. This new machinery 
greatly reduced the amount of hard labor on the farm, 
and made farming much more pleasant and profitable. 

616. Manufacturing and Mining. — The growth of the 
manufacturing industry was fully as great as that of agri- 
culture. While the real development of the great mineral 



Institutional Life 501 

resources of the nation did not take place until during the 
period after the Civil War, the great demand for iron 
goods and the use of coal for heating purposes caused 
the beginning of the extensive mining of coal and of 
iron ore. The development of the gold and silver mines 
of the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific coast region 
was also proceeding rapidly. The mining of iron ore 
and coal assisted the growth of manufactures, and the 
growth of manufactures created, in turn, a demand for 
the mineral resources of the nation. The invention of 
much valuable machinery for the manufacture of goods 
of various kinds made increased production of manufac- 
tured goods possible. The building of railroads and 
telegraph lines, the invention of the sewing machine, and 
of many other practical devices, created a large demand 
for many new kinds of manufactured goods, supplies, 
and materials. At the same time, the amount of cotton 
and woolen manufactured goods increased steadily. The 
result of all this activity caused the manufacturing in- 
dustry to grow so rapidly that the goods produced in 
the United States in i860 were worth about two billion 
dollars. More than one and a half million men were em- 
ployed in the making of these goods, and they received 
each year in wages about four hundred fifty million dollars. 
The period after the Civil War was to see this growth 
continued to such an extent that to-day the United States 
stands at the head of the manufacturing nations. 

617. Commerce, Domestic and Foreign. — The growth of 
agriculture and manufactures led naturally to the growth 
of commerce. The improvement in steamboat navigation, 
the building of railroads, and the many valuable inven- 
tions to which reference has already been made, helped 
the growth of agriculture and manufactures. All this 



502 Westward Expansion and Slavery- 
caused the development of an immense internal com- 
merce and a steady increase in the nation's foreign com- 
merce. By the end of this period American foreign and 
domestic commerce combined was larger than that of any 
other nation, but the foreign commerce alone was not 
as large as that of England. It has continued to grow, 
however, and to-day (1905) the foreign commerce of the 
United States is greater than that of any other nation, 
while the domestic commerce of the country has grown 
even more rapidly. 

618. The Shipping Industry had also developed rapidly. 
In 1 860- 1 86 1 more of the world's commerce was carried 
in American ships than in the ships of any other nation. 
Since that time, however, the shipping industry of the 
United States has declined, and to-day England leads 
the world in the carrying of foreign commerce, although 
England's foreign commerce at the present time is smaller 
than that of the United States. It becomes plain from all 
this that the shipping industry of the United States was 
in a more prosperous condition during the period of West- 
ward Expansion and Slavery than it had ever been before 
or has been since, and that the growth of the nation's 
domestic and foreign commerce during the same time 
was even more rapid than the growth of its shipping 
industry. 

619. Growth of Cities. — It is worth noting in this con- 
nection that the rapid growth of commerce bore a close 
and very important relation to the growth of cities. The 
growth of manufactures and commerce causes the growth 
of cities, and especially is this true of commerce. Agri- 
culture tends to scatter population and thus to prevent 
the growth of large cities. When the North and South 
are compared with respect to the growth of cities during 



Institutional Life 



5°3 



this period, the correctness of this statement is well illus- 
trated. In 1 86 1 Baltimore, St. Louis, and New Orleans 
were the only cities in the South that had a population 
of more than one hundred thousand. The growth of 
cities in the North, on the other hand, has been very 
rapid. In 1828 only about six hundred thousand people 




Street Scene in New York City in 1859 

lived in the cities of the North, but by i860 this number 
had increased to almost five millions. At the latter date, 
New York City alone had a population of about eight 
hundred thousand, while seven other northern cities had 
populations ranging all the way from one hundred thou- 
sand to five hundred thousand. All these large cities were 
commercial centers, and were therefore railroad centers, 
and centers for either ocean navigation or inland steam- 
boat navigation. All this illustrates still further that 



504 Westward Expansion and Slavery 

slavery, by restricting the South to agriculture, was pre- 
venting there the growth of manufactures, of commerce, 
and of cities, and was causing the South to fall behind the 
North rapidly in wealth and population. 

620. Class Distinctions in the South. — During the period 
of Westward Expansion and Slavery, as was also the case 
during the period of National Growth and European In- 
terference, the most important change in social conditions 
was the breaking down of class distinctions in the North 
and the continuation of sharp class distinctions in the 
South. During this period the division of the northern 
people into classes became less and less marked, while 
the division of the southern people into classes remained 
almost as sharp and distinct as during colonial times. 
The large slaveholders continued to be the absolute 
leaders in politics and society. They dominated and 
controlled almost every phase of southern life. Their 
leadership was accepted by the middle and lower classes 
as a matter of course. The middle class continued to 
consist of the traders and the small farmers, while the 
third class of whites continued to consist of the " poor 
whites." The negroes constituted the fourth class of 
southern society. 

621. Class Distinctions in the North. — In the North there 
were no longer any well-defined classes among the people, 
and especially was this true in the western part of the 
North. The idea that one man was better than another 
simply because of his birth or because he was wealthy 
was being accepted by fewer and fewer people. More 
and more people were coming to judge a person's real 
worth solely by his character, ability, and education. This 
idea tends to bring all men to a common level so far as 
government and social relations are concerned. In the 



Institutional Life 505 

election of Jackson, and in the organization of state and 
national nominating conventions, the people had asserted 
this common equality in government and politics. They 
had also come to assert it in many of the social relations. 
In steamboat travel, in the public coaches and stages, 
and in the public tavern or hotels, marked attention 
and favored treatment were seldom received by a person 
simply because he was wealthy or because he belonged 
to a certain family. In all such public relations the tend- 
ency was to treat all men alike. 

622. Changes in Social Life ; Dress ; Amusements. — The 
strongest factor in breaking down class distinctions in the 
North during the period of Westward Expansion and 
Slavery continued to be the growth and application of 
liberal democratic ideas. The coming of the railroads, 
however, was a factor of scarcely less importance. In the 
rush of commerce, trade, manufacturing, and travel which 
the railroad helped to create, people had less time to think 
about class distinction. In the great material growth 
which took place during this period all men were equal. 
This equality in business relations tended to bring about 
equality in social relations. The railroads had a very 
strong influence also on the dress and amusements of the 
people. Rapid means of travel caused amusements and the 
styles of dress to become more alike throughout the country, 
though of course in these things many marked differences 
still existed. Especially was this true as between the cities 
and the country. The city population had increased from 
less than one million in 1828 to about five million in i860. 
In the country, parties, dances, horse racing, field sports, 
barn raisings, and husking parties were the principal 
forms of amusement. In the rapidly growing cities there 
was much gay social life. Parties, balls, clubs, and theaters 



506 Westward Expansion and Slavery 

furnished the principal means of amusement. In the 
matter of dress, food, and general comforts there was a 
distinct advance in the North in both country and cities. 
The great mass of the people wore better clothes, ate 
better food, and had more comforts. This was due to the 
rapid growth of manufactories and the railroads which 
made it much easier for the people in all parts of the country 
to secure manufactured goods and a larger variety of 
food. 

623. Democratic Tendencies in National Government. — 
During the period of Westward Expansion and Slavery 
the tendency of government was to become more demo- 
cratic. The changes which took place in government 
during the period of National Growth and European Inter- 
ference were of the same nature. The whole tendency 
of government, therefore, from 1789 to i860, was toward 
democracy. By this is meant that the -people demanded 
a more direct and more complete control of national, 
state, and local government. They gradually secured this. 
The election of Jackson was their first great triumph. 
The organization of national nominating conventions which 
resulted in active presidential campaigns completed their 
control of the national government. As has already been 
explained, this was an entire change from the ideas of 
government which existed when Washington was first 
elected President. 

624. Growth of Popular Control in State and Local Gov- 
ernments. — Similar changes took place in state govern- 
ment. The constitutions of the new western states were 
much more liberal and democratic than were those of 
the older states. Many of the constitutions of these 
western states provided that more officers be elected by 
the people, and in many cases the powers of the governor 



Institutional Life 507 

and legislature were limited. Changes of a like nature 
took place in the constitutions of the older states. Many 
of the older states during this period either amended their 
constitutions or adopted new ones, and in almost every 
case the people secured a more complete control of state 
government. The changes in local government were in 
the same direction. More of the local officials were 
elected directly by the people. At the beginning of this 
period the question of city government was not of great 
importance because the cities were small, but their rapid 
growth in the North caused city or municipal govern- 
ment to become of more and more importance. As in 
the case of state and county government, the govern- 
ment of cities was very democratic. It is worthy of spe- 
cial notice that the changes in state and local government 
in the older slaveholding states were much less democratic 
than in the other states. In i860 South Carolina was the 
only state in which the people had not secured the right to 
elect presidential electors. In that state they were still 
chosen by the legislature. This slow growth of democratic 
ideas in the South was due, at least to a large extent, to 
the aristocratic ideas which slavery preserved. 

625. Change in Manner of selecting Judges. — One phase 
in the growth of government toward democracy deserves 
most careful consideration. The changes made during this 
period in many of the state constitutions provided for 
the election of judges directly by the people, and usually 
for short terms. In most cases before this the state 
constitutions provided for their appointment, and usually 
for terms lasting for life or during good behavior. It 
will be remembered that all the judges in all of the 
United States courts, from the Supreme Court down to 
the District Courts, are appointed by the President and 



508 Westward Expansion and Slavery 

confirmed by the United States Senate. In this connec- 
tion it is well to remember that the selection of judges is 
one of the most important questions before the American 
people. The legislative department makes the laws, and 
the executive department executes the laws, but the judi- 
cial department interprets and applies the laws and decides 
whether or not they are in accordance with state and 
national constitutions. The life, the liberty, and the prop- 
erty of every person is, to a certain extent, in the care and 
keeping of the courts. If the judges are dishonest, or if 
they are not learned and able, or if they can be influenced 
in their decisions except by what is right and just, the 
rights of no citizen are safe. Bearing in mind the great 
importance of the position which a judge occupies, this 
question presents itself : Is it best to elect local and state 
judges by popular vote? It sometimes happens that some 
of the judges elected by the people are not able men, and 
that they have been elected because they belong to a certain 
political party. Some do not seem to realize the grave im- 
portance of the position which they occupy, and are some- 
times inclined to give too much consideration to the popular 
effect which their decisions may have. The people desire to 
elect able and honest men for judges, and in most cases suc- 
ceed ; but the people are not always in a position to decide 
whether or not the man running for this office will make 
an honest and able judge. It might be better, therefore, 
for county and state judges to be appointed by the state 
in some such way as are the judges of the United States 
courts, although this might not prove entirely satisfactory. 
One thing is certain, no citizen should ever vote for a can- 
didate for judge simply because that man happens to belong 
to his political party. In voting for a man for the position 
of judge, a voter should do everything possible to find out 



Institutional Life 



509 



which of the candidates will make the best judge, and then 
vote for him without any regard to politics. The people 
cannot guard the judicial department with too much care. 

626. Religion. — About 1830 a great wave of religious 
enthusiasm, which was accompanied by a general reforming 
spirit, swept over the 
nation. This resulted 
in the rapid growth of 
nearly all the church 
organizations. The 
membership of the 
different churches in- 
creased rapidly, and 
this tended to raise 
the standard of mor- 
als among the masses 
of the people. In 
the latter part of 
this period, slavery 
caused a division 
in some of the 
churches, and differ- 
ent branches were 
formed, the Methodist Episcopal Church and the Metho- 
dist Episcopal Church South being examples of this. The 
Mormon church had its rise at this time, and the persecu- 
tion of its members on account of their doctrines led to 
their migration into the West. At first the Mormons 
settled in Illinois, but subsequently they migrated to Utah, 
where they formed a government of their own. 

627. Educational Advancement ; Public School System. 
— As has already been stated, the United States for about 
thirty years after the beginning of the Revolution went 




Edgar Allan Poe 



510 Westward Expansion and Slavery 



backward in matters of education. From about 1810 to 
1828 there was a gradual improvement in the public schools, 
and especially was this true in the western states. While 
this growth continued throughout the period of Westward 
Expansion and Slavery, the improvement in the schools was 
not rapid. The number of elementary schools continued to 

increase, however, 
and many high 
schools, acade- 
mies, and colleges 
were established, 
in most of which 
good work was 
done. While the 
work done in these 
schools was much 
inferior to that 
done in similar 
schools to-day, it 
was becoming bet- 
ter and better. 
Such men as Hor- 
ace Mann were de- 
voting their time 
and best efforts to the improvement of the public schools, 
and by and by this excellent work was to result in great 
good to education. Just before the Civil War the people 
began to demand better schools and a better system. As 
will be seen later, the earnest and unselfish work of a few 
able men caused a remarkable improvement in education 
after the Civil War. 

628. The Improvement in General Literature and General 
Education was much greater than the improvement in 




Nathaniel Hawthorne 



Institutional Life 



5 11 



the public schools. With the exception of Washington 
Irving, James Fenimore Cooper, and William Cullen Bry- 
ant, there were no great American writers during the period 
of National Growth and European Interference. But the 
period of Westward Expansion and Slavery saw a distinct 
and notable improvement in this respect. Irving, Cooper, 
and Bryant did 
much of their best 
work after 1828. 
Hawthorne, Poe, 
Emerson, Longfel- 
low, Lowell, Whit- 
tier, Holmes, Pres- 
cott, Park man, and 
others wrote dur- 
ing this period and 
produced much of 
the nation's best 
literature. The 
writings and the 
public lectures of 
these men did 
much to create 
right ideals, and to 




James Russell Lowell 



raise the standard of education and culture among the 
masses of people. The desire for learning and litera- 
ture, which the work of these men created among the 
people, affected profoundly the growth of literature and 
education after the Civil War. It will be seen a little 
later that the Civil War, instead of checking the growth 
of industry, education, and literature, stimulated growth 
along these lines beyond anything which the nation had 
yet experienced. 



5 1 2 Westward Expansion and Slavery 



QUESTIONS AND TOPICS 

Questions for Class Recitations 

Over what part of American history does the period of National 
Growth and European Interference extend? What were the main 
features or characteristics of this period? Over what part of American 
history does the period of Westward Expansion and Slavery extend? 
What were the main features or characteristics of this period? Explain 
carefully the relation between the main features of these two periods. 

POLITICAL METHODS AND POLITICAL PARTIES 
Questions for Class Recitations 

Describe some of the main results which the growth of liberal demo- 
cratic ideas brought about during the period of National Growth and 
European Interference. Explain how the first six Presidents of the 
United States represented the upper or aristocratic class of society. 
For how long did these men control the national government? To 
what class did both Washington and Jefferson believe the higher 
officials of the national government should belong? What were their 
ideas as to who should vote? Explain carefully in what way the elec- 
tion of Jackson was contrary to the ideas of Washington and Jefferson. 
Discuss the character of Jackson, and show how his election marks 
the complete triumph of democracy in the United States. Explain 
carefully the difference between the democracy of Jefferson and the 
democracy of Jackson. (This question deserves the most careful 
consideration.) 

Upon what basis were men appointed to office under the national 
government before Jackson was elected President? Give a careful 
explanation of the Spoils System. When, by whom, and why was this 
system introduced into national politics? Discuss the evil effects of 
the Spoils System. How has Congress in recent years tried to over- 
come the evil effects of this system? 

What is a presidential elector? How is the number of presidential 
electors to which each state is entitled determined ? Why did those 
who framed the Constitution desire that the President should be 
elected by electors instead of directly by the people? Give a careful 



Questions and Topics 5 1 3 

explanation of how the electors were chosen during the early history 
of the nation under the Constitution. Explain carefully how this af- 
fected the interest which the people took in the election of the Presi- 
dent. Explain carefully how the growth of democratic ideas affected 
the manner of electing electors. How did this affect the interest 
which the people took in the presidential election of 1824 and the one 
of 182S? 

Before the presidential campaign of 1832 how were the candidates 
for President and Vice President nominated? How were they nomi- 
nated in the campaign of 1832? What is the object and the composi- 
tion of national nominating conventions? What was the origin and 
what is the nature of national political platforms? Explain carefully 
how the complete state and national organization of political parties 
gave the people control of, and increased their interest in, presidential 
elections. Give a full explanation of the nature and object of the 
campaign methods which the complete organization of political parties 
brought about. 

Why, in what way, and when did the Republican party break up? 
What new parties were formed during this period, and when were they 
formed? Who were the Democratic Presidents during this period, and 
over what years did the term or terms of each extend ? Explain the 
principles of the Democratic party. What was some of its most im- 
portant work? Who were the Whig Presidents, and over what years 
did the term of each extend? Discuss the principles of the Whig 
party. Explain carefully why these principles were not carried out 
when this party was in power. What effect did this have on the 
party? What caused the organization of the Republican party, and 
what was therefore one of the main principles of this party? 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Compare, by a discussion, the main features or characteristics of the 
period of National Growth and European Interference with the main 
features or characteristics of the period of Westward Expansion and 
Slavery. Give a careful discussion of the meaning of Jackson's election. 
Discuss the Spoils System, including its origin, development, and effect. 
Give a careful discussion of this subject, — manner of electing presi- 
dential electors, including the effect of the change in the manner of 
electing. Discuss the origin and result of national nominating conven- 



514 Westward Expansion and Slavery 

tions, platforms, and campaigns. Discuss the reorganization of politi- 
cal parties during Jackson's first administration. Discuss the principles 
and important measures of the Democratic party during this period. 
Discuss the principles of the Whig party and the cause of its fall. 
Discuss the origin of the Republican party. 



FINANCIAL LEGISLATION: THE TARIFF 
Questions for Class Recitations 

Explain carefully why the tariff of 1828 is known as the Tariff of 
Abominations. Explain carefully how this tariff came to be passed. 
Why had the South become opposed to the protective principle of the 
tariff? How was the tariff of 1828 received in the South? Compare 
the doctrine stated in the exposition and protest of South Carolina 
with the doctrine stated in the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, and 
in the Hartford convention. In what way had Calhoun changed his 
views on these questions? What do you think caused him to do this? 
What is meant by the right of nullification? Describe carefully the 
trouble which the national government had with South Carolina over 
the question of the tariff. What were the terms of the compromise 
tariff of 1832 ? What other changes were made in the tariff during this 
period ? 

When was the first and the second charter of the United States Bank 
granted, and when did each of these charters expire? What is meant 
by a monopoly? Explain why Jackson was opposed to the United 
States Bank. Explain the way in which this bank became the main 
issue in the presidential campaign of 1832. Explain how Jackson suc- 
ceeded in destroying the United States Bank. Explain carefully how 
the destruction of the United States Bank caused the organization of 
many state banks. Explain what led to the issuing of large sums of 
paper money. What is hard money? Why was this paper money not 
so good as hard money? Explain the meaning of speculation. Explain 
carefully how the distribution of the government money among the state 
banks, and the making of paper money by these banks, led to a great 
deal of speculation at this time. What first caused the paper money 
that was issued by the state banks to become of less value than gold or 
silver? What is meant by specie? What is meant by specie payment? 



Questions and Topics 515 

Explain carefully why Jackson issued his specie circular. How did 
this circular cause paper money to become of still less value? 

Describe the conditions that caused a surplus of forty million dollars to 
accumulate to the credit of the United States during the years 1835 an d 
1836. What was done with this surplus? Explain carefully how the 
distribution of the surplus to the various states caused the value of 
paper money to become still less. When the paper money became 
almost worthless, how was business affected? What is the condition 
of business when a financial panic is said to exist? Describe the con- 
dition of business during the financial panic of 1837. Describe the 
Independent or Subtreasury System. How did the panic of 1837 
lead to the establishment of this system? 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Give a full discussion of the tariff of J 828 and the trouble which the 
national government had with South Carolina over this tariff. Give a 
full discussion of the United States Bank, showing clearly how its 
destruction led to the financial panic of 1837. Discuss the Independ- 
ent Treasury System. 



GROWTH OF THE NATION IN TERRITORY AND 
POPULATION 

Questions for Class Recitations 

What were the boundaries of the United States at the close of the 
Revolution? Describe the increase in the territory of the United States 
between the Revolution and 1820. Explain carefully the importance 
to the United States of the territory secured during this time. Why 
were Jefferson and other leading Americans anxious to secure the 
Oregon country, and why was the territory of special value to the United 
States? Explain events leading to the final settlement of the Oregon 
question, and the terms of the treaty that settled this question. 

Explain carefully the conditions that caused the South to desire to 
secure more slave territory. Why was the South especially anxious to 
secure Texas? Describe the settlement of Texas by the Americans. 
Was there anything unusual about this advance of the Americans into 
Texas? Explain carefully how Texas became independent of Mexico. 



5 1 6 Westward Expansion and Slavery 

Why was the South strongly in favor of annexing Texas, and why was 
the North opposed to this? Explain how the annexation of Texas and 
the Oregon question became important issues in the presidential cam- 
paign of 1844. Explain carefully how the annexation of Texas brought 
on the Mexican War. Do you think the United States was justified in 
beginning this war? Give reasons for your answer. Briefly describe 
General Taylor's campaign. Briefly describe General Scott's campaign. 
Give the time, place, and explain the terms of the treaty that ended 
the war with Mexico. How was additional territory secured from 
Mexico in 1853? 

Explain carefully how the United States secured all the territory which 
it secured from the beginning of the American Revolution to the begin- 
ning of the Civil War. Explain the value to the United States of each 
addition in territory. How did the growth of the United States in popu- 
lation during the period of Westward Expansion and Slavery compare 
with its growth in territory? What states were formed in the great 
central plain during this period ? Discuss the growth in population of 
the Oregon Territory. Discuss the growth of California and its admis- 
sion to the Union. 



Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the entire controversy between England and the United 
States over the Oregon Territory. Discuss the conditions and events 
which led to the annexation of Texas. Discuss the causes, campaigns, 
and results of the war with Mexico. Discuss quite fully the growth of 
the United States in territory and population, including the importance 
of this growth. 



THE SLAVERY QUESTION 

Questions for Class Recitations 

Explain why the question of slavery during this period would be 
related naturally to the growth of the nation in territory. To what 
extent did the Missouri Compromise settle the question of slavery ? 
Describe the gradual abolition of slavery in the northern states, and 
explain carefully the reasons for this. What was the feeling in the 
South toward slavery from about the close of the Revolution to 1800? 



Questions and Topics 517 

What was the cause of this feeling? Explain carefully the conditions 
which caused the South, after about 1800, to become more and more in 
favor of slavery, and which .caused slavery to become more and more 
firmly rooted in southern industrial, social, and political life. 

What is meant by abolition and Abolitionists as related to the slavery 
question? Describe the growth of the abolition sentiment in the North, 
and explain the attitude of the Abolitionists toward slavery. On what 
grounds did the Abolitionists force the South to defend slavery ? 
Describe fully how the people in the South and most of those in the 
North treated the Abolitionists. Why did the Abolitionists send peti- 
tions to Congress? Explain the attitude of the southern members of 
Congress and of many of the northern members toward these petitions 
against slavery. Explain what is meant by the Gag Resolutions. In 
what way did these resolutions violate the Constitution of the United 
States ? What effect did these resolutions have on the people of the 
North ? What effect did the slavery petitions and their discussion in 
Congress and by the press have on the people of the South ? 

Explain very fully why the South was very much opposed to the ad- 
mission of California as a free state. Why was the North strongly 
in favor of admitting California into the Union as a free state? In what 
way was the question of slavery in relation to the territory secured from 
Mexico first brought up for discussion in Congress? Explain the con- 
ditions that caused Clay and Webster to submit and urge the adoption 
of the Compromise of 1850. Plxplain carefully each provision of this 
compromise, and the effect or bearing of each of these provisions on the 
slavery question. * 

What was " Uncle Tom's Cabin," and what was its effect on the slavery 
question? In what way did the Fugitive Slave Law and the strong 
attempt of the South to enforce it affect the slavery question? Explain 
carefully what was meant by the doctrine of Popular or Squatter Sover- 
eignty. Who was the author of this doctrine? How did it affect the 
question of slavery in all the western territory? Explain carefully the 
provisions of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill. Explain fully how the doctrine 
of popular sovereignty as applied in the Kansas-Nebraska Bill affected 
the settlement of Kansas. How did the struggle in Kansas influence 
the people of both the North and the South in regard to the slavery 
question? What were the conditions that led to the Dred Scott 
Decision? State clearly the principles of this decision, and explain 
carefully what would have been their effect on slavery if they had been 



51 8 Westward Expansion and Slavery 

fully carried out. What general effect did the Dred Scott Decision 
and the Kansas-Nebraska Bill have on the people of the North ? 

Explain carefully the conditions that led to the Lincoln-Douglas 
Debates. Explain the main phases of the slavery question that were 
discussed in these debates. Explain the attitude of both Lincoln and 
Douglas on these questions. What effect did these debates have on 
the people of the nation.? What effect did they have on the future of 
Lincoln and Douglas in connection with the presidential campaign of 
i860 ? Explain carefully why the election of Lincoln caused some 
of the southern states to secede. 

Explain very fully how the topography, climate, and soil of the east- 
ern part of the United States caused slavery to be abolished in the North 
and not to be abolished in the South. Explain carefully how the in- 
vention of improved weaving machinery and the cotton gin affected the 
growth of slavery in the South. Explain fully to what extent the differ- 
ence in the topography, climate, and soil of the North and South was the 
real or fundamental cause of the American Civil War. In your opinion, 
what would have been the result, so far as slavery is concerned, if the 
colonists who settled in the South had settled in the North, and those 
who settled in the North had settled in the South ? What general effect 
was slavery having on industrial conditions in the South ? If slavery had 
been quietly restricted to the cotton-raising states and the border slave 
states, and if the question of slavery had not become an important issue 
between the North and South, what do you think would have finally been 
the fate of slavery in the southern states ? 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the conditions affecting the growth of slavery. Discuss the 
rise of the Abolitionists, and the effect of their work on the slavery 
question. Discuss the Gag Resolutions and their effect on the slavery 
question. Discuss the conditions which led to the Compromise of 1850, 
and the provisions and results of this compromise. Discuss the 
Kansas-Nebraska Bill and its effect on the slavery question. Discuss 
the Dred Scott Decision. Discuss the Lincoln-Douglas Debates, in- 
cluding in this discussion the conditions which led to these debates, 
the principles discussed in them, and their results on the future of 
slavery. Beginning with the difference between the topography, cli- 
mate, and soil of the North and South, give a careful discussion of the 
causes which led to the American Civil War. 



Questions and Topics 519 



INSTITUTIONAL LIFE 
Questions for Class Recitations 

What was the nature of the growth along institutional lines during 
the period of Westward Expansion and Slavery ? What were the con- 
ditions or factors which caused this growth ? Compare the industrial 
growth of the South with that of the North and Northwest. Explain 
carefully what caused this difference. Compare the North and South 
with regard to population and cities, and give the causes for the differ- 
ence which existed between the two sections in these respects. 

Review briefly the improvement in means of transportation and 
communication that was made during the period of National Growth 
and European Interference. Explain fully what might have been the 
effect on the nation if the railroad and the telegraph had not been 
invented. Explain why the nation is smaller to-day for purposes of 
business and government than was the state of New York or the state 
of Pennsylvania before the railroad and telegraph came into use. In 
what way did the railroad help to settle up the country ? Explain care- 
fully how railroads helped the growth of the feeling of national unity. 
Discuss what the results would be to-day if all the railroads and all 
telegraph lines were destroyed. 

Describe the origin of railroads in the United States and the charac- 
ter of those first built. Describe carefully the growth of railroads in 
the United States up to i860. Describe the origin of the telegraph 
and the growth of telegraph lines in the United States up to i860. 
Describe the origin of the trans-Atlantic cable. Explain carefully the 
value of the telegraph. 

Describe briefly the growth of inventions in the United States from 
1790 to i860. Name some of the more important inventions made 
during the period of Westward Expansion and Slavery. Describe the 
origin of the sewing machine, and explain its importance to industrial 
conditions. Describe the origin of the reaper and the threshing 
machine, and explain their importance to industrial conditions. De- 
scribe carefully some of the other inventions and discoveries made 
during this period, and explain the value of each. Indicate in a gen- 
eral way the value to mankind of all these inventions and discoveries. 

Describe the condition of agriculture in the different sections of the 
country. Explain carefully how the invention of new machinery 



520 Westward Expansion and Slavery 

affected the growth of agriculture. What can you say about the 
development of the great mineral resources of the nation? Explain 
how the invention of new machinery affected the growth of manufac- 
tures. What was the condition of the manufacturing industry in i860 ? 
How did its condition then compare with its condition to-day? Ex- 
plain how the growth of agriculture and manufactures affected the 
growth of commerce. What was the condition of American commerce 
in i860, and how does its condition now compare with its condition 
then? What was the condition of the American shipping industry at 
that time, and how does its condition now compare with its condition 
then ? Explain carefully the effect of agriculture, manufactures, and 
commerce on the growth of cities. Show plainly how the growth of 
cities in the North and South during this period illustrates this princi- 
ple. In what way was slavery connected with the growth of cities in 
the South? 

What was the most important change in social conditions during 
the periods of National Growth and European Interference and West- 
ward Expansion and Slavery? Discuss each of the classes which ex- 
isted in southern society during the latter period. Explain carefully 
why these sharp class distinctions still existed in the South. Give a 
full and careful discussion of the causes which tended to destroy class 
distinctions in northern society. Explain the effect of these causes or 
principles on social relations in the North. How did the railroads 
affect the manners, customs, and amusements of the people? Compare 
the amusements of the people in the country with the amusements of 
those in the cities. Explain the conditions which enabled the people 
to have better food and better clothes. 

What was the nature of the change in government during the period 
of Westward Expansion and Slavery? Explain in what way this was 
true with regard to the changes in national government. Explain in 
what way it was true with regard to the changes in state government. 
Explain in what way it was true with regard to changes in local gov- 
ernment. Explain in what way and why these changes did not apply 
to the South. Explain carefully why the judicial department of gov- 
ernment is so very important. Explain carefully why the selection of 
judges is of so great importance. Why may the election of judges by 
popular vote be unwise and result in injury? If you were voting for a 
man for the position of judge, and there were several candidates, how 
would you decide for which one to vote? 



Questions and Topics 521 

What was the nature of the changes or growth in religious conditions 
during this period? How did this growth affect the standard of morals 
among the masses of people? Review briefly the condition of education 
during the period of National Growth and European Interference. De- 
scribe carefully the growth of the public school system during the period 
of Westward Expansion and Slavery. Describe the conditions which 
existed during this time that caused rapid improvement in the public 
schools after the Civil War. What was the condition of literature 
during the period of National Growth and European Interference ? What 
was its condition during the period of Westward Expansion and Slavery? 
Name some of the more important writers of this period, and one of 
the more important works of each. Explain carefully the effect that 
the work of these men had on the masses of the people. In what way 
did the work of these men affect literature and education after the 
Civil War? What effect did the Civil War have in this respect? 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the nature of the industrial changes which took place during 
the period of Westward Expansion and Slavery. Discuss the improve- 
ments in the means of transportation and communication, and the 
effect of this improvement on the industrial and social life of the nation 
and on the growth of national unity. Discuss some of the other impor- 
tant inventions and discoveries of this period, and their effect on the 
industrial life of the nation. Discuss the growth of agriculture and 
manufactures. Discuss the growth of commerce and cities. Discuss 
the changes in social conditions. Discuss the changes in government. 
Discuss the changes in religion. Discuss the growth of literature and 
the public schools. 




Abraham Lincoln 



522 



THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR 



RESOURCES OF THE NORTH AND THE SOUTH 

I. Commanders, Military Supplies, and Available Soldiers 
II. Means of Transportation : Financial and Industrial Resources 

SECESSION AND BEGINNINGS 

I. The Right of Secession 

II. Secession 

III. The Fall of Fort Sumter 

IV. The Battle ot Bull Run 

CAMPAIGNS 

I. Introductory 
II. Scope and Nature of Campaigns : Method of Treatment 

III. The Eastern Campaign 

i. The First Advance on Richmond 

2. The Battles of Bull Run, Antietam, and Fredericksburg 

3. The Emancipation Proclamation 

4. The Battles of Chancellorsville and Gettysburg 

IV. The Western Campaign 

1 . The Western Commanders 

2. Union Successes in Western Tennessee 

3. The Capture of New Orleans 

4. The Battles of Perryville and Murfreesboro : Result of the 

Year's Work — 1862 

5. The Capture of Vicksburg 

6. The Battles of Chickamauga and Chattanooga 

7. Result of the Year's Work— 1863 
V. The Campaign of 1 864-1 865 

1. The War in the West and the South 

2. The War in Virginia 

523 



524 The American Civil War 



THE WORK OF THE NAVY 



I. Blockade of the Southern Ports 
II. Commerce Destroyers 
III. Revolution in Naval Warfare 



RESULTS 



Resources of the North and the South 525 

RESOURCES OF THE NORTH AND THE SOUTH 

629. Military Leaders. — The main or fundamental 
causes of the American Civil War, and the political 
events which led to it directly, have already been dis- 
cussed and developed rather fully. It is well now to 
review briefly the differences between the resources of 
the seceding states and those which supported the national 
government. In two respects the South had, at first, the 
advantage of the North. At first she had abler generals 
in command of her armies, and a larger supply of military 
stores. There were many men of military training in both 
the North and South, and a few of great military genius ; 
but the ablest military leaders of the North did not secure 
command of the Federal armies until several years after 
the war began, while the southern armies were commanded 
by the ablest southern generals from the very first. 

630. Military Supplies. — The larger part of the govern- 
ment's military supplies had been stored in southern arse- 
nals before the beginning of the war, and the Southerners 
took possession of these arsenals as soon as the war began. 
Because of this, the South at first had more military sup- 
plies than did the North. But this was only for a short 
time. The great manufacturing establishments of the 
North soon enabled the Federal government to secure an 
ample supply of war material, while an almost total lack 
of manufactories in the South, and the blockade of the 
southern ports by the Federal navy, soon produced a great 
scarcity of war material in the southern states. 

631. Available Soldiers. — In population the North also 
had a great advantage. The total population of the United 
States in i860 was about thirty-one millions. The white 
population of those southern states which seceded and 



526 The American Civil War 

united to form the Confederate States of America was less 
than six millions, while the white population of the states 
which supported the national government was more than 
twenty millions. This gave the North a great advantage, 
because she could, if necessary, raise fully three times as 
many soldiers as could the South. But while the Federal 
armies were usually larger than the Confederate armies, 
the North did not raise half as many soldiers in proportion 
to the white population as did the South. 

632. Means of Transportation. — In the means of trans- 
porting troops, war material, food and other supplies, the 
North had a great advantage over the South. As com- 
pared with the large and increasing network of excellent 
railroads in the North, the South had but few, and these 
were not well equipped. Neither did she have the mate- 
rial and the skilled workmen to keep those which she did 
have, in good repair. The Federal government had little 
trouble in transporting soldiers and supplies from one part 
of the country to another ; but the Confederate states, on 
the other hand, found it very difficult to do this. In some 
parts of the South the people actually suffered because 
the means of transporting food to them from those parts 
of the South where it existed in abundance were so poor. 
For this same reason the Confederate soldiers often did 
not have enough to eat. 

633. Financial Resources. — In the matter of financial 
resources, the North had a still greater advantage over 
the South. The money of the South consisted almost 
entirely of that received for the cotton, tobacco, rice, and 
corn which she exported to the North and to Europe. 
After the Federal navy blockaded the southern ports, this 
source of wealth was destroyed. Hard money — that is, 
gold and silver — soon became very scarce in the South, 



Resources of the North and the South 527 

and one of the most difficult questions which the govern- 
ment of the Confederacy was called upon to solve was 
the question of securing enough money to maintain her 
armies in the field in good condition. This she did not 
fully succeed in doing. She issued paper money, as did 
the Continental Congress during the Revolution, and like 
the Continental currency, Confederate money depreciated 
in value and soon became almost worthless. Worthless 
money, lack of manufactories, and the blockade of her 
ports destroyed the business of the South and caused great 
suffering among the people and among the Confederate 
soldiers. The Federal government, on the other hand, 
was able to secure enough money to equip and maintain 
her armies in the field in excellent condition as compared 
with the condition of the southern armies. She secured this 
money by taxation, by the sale of more than one billion 
dollars' worth of bonds, and by issuing about five hundred 
million dollars' worth of paper money and more than five 
hundred and fifty million dollars' worth of interest-bearing 
notes, the latter being another form of paper money. 
The bonds were sold without much difficulty, and although 
paper money depreciated in value, a dollar in gold was 
never worth as much as three dollars in paper money, and 
during most of the war a gold dollar was worth less than 
two of paper money. At this point the question may arise 
as to why the government of the Confederacy could not 
have sold as many dollars' worth of bonds as did the 
national government, and kept its paper money worth as 
much. The reason was simply a matter of faith on the 
part of the people. The people did not believe that the 
Confederate government would ever be able to redeem its 
bonds and paper money, and they did believe that the 
national government would be able to redeem the bonds 



528 The American Civil War 

and paper money which it had issued. The question may 
also arise at this point as to why the government of the 
Confederacy could not raise money by taxation. It did 
raise some in this way ; but as business in the South was 
almost ruined, the people did not have gold and silver 
money, and the almost worthless paper money was of 
scarcely any value to the government. In the North it 
was quite different. There, business and wealth and popu- 
lation actually increased during the war. This enabled the 
people of the North to pay large sums of money in taxes 
to the national government. 

634. Summary — Relative Strength of the Two Sections. 
— It becomes plain from what has been stated, that dur- 
ing the entire war the North in matters of business, wealth, 
and general prosperity increased rapidly, and that in all 
these matters the Confederacy — a great deal weaker 
than the North at the beginning of the war — became 
weaker and "weaker as the war progressed. It was during 
this war that the national government loaned more than 
fifty million dollars to the corporation that built the first 
railroad between California and the East. When the small 
white population of the Confederacy and her small available 
resources are compared with the large white population of 
the North and her immense resources, the wonder is that 
the Confederate government was able to maintain the war 
as long as it did. Nothing but the patriotism and bravery 
of their soldiers ever enabled the Southerners to do so. 
They were Americans, and were fighting for what they 
believed to be right. 



Secession and Beginnings 529 

SECESSION AND BEGINNINGS 

635. Secession from the Constitutional Standpoint. — 

There has been a great deal of discussion as to whether 
or not the Constitution of the United States gave a state 
the right to secede or withdraw from the Union. Many 
have asserted that the Constitution gave this right, 
and many have asserted that it did not. The weight of 
opinion seems to be that the Constitution gave no such 
right. This would seem to be the sounder view. The 
Constitution was adopted, not by the states as states, but 
by the people of each state, and therefore in substance 
by the people of the United States. That this was the 
purpose and intention of those who made and adopted 
the Constitution is indicated plainly by the preamble of the 
Constitution. The preamble does not say that We the 
States of the United States do so and so, but it says, " We 
the people of the United States, in order to form a more 
perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, 
provide for the common defense, promote the general 
welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves 
and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution 
for the United States of America." Neither does the Con- 
stitution provide that the national government shall act 
upon the people through the states, but it provides that 
the laws of the United States shall act directly upon each 
individual citizen. The Constitution makes it the duty of 
the President to take care that the laws of the United 
States are carried out faithfully ; and when a state law, 
therefore, interferes or conflicts with a national law, the 
national law must prevail over the state law, for otherwise 
the President could not enforce the national law. The 
Constitution creates a judicial department and makes it the 
2 M 



530 The American Civil War 

duty of this department to decide — when the question is 
properly brought before it — whether or not a law passed 
by Congress is in accordance with the Constitution. And 
finally, the Constitution itself provides a method whereby 
it may be amended or changed. 

636. Secession as a Natural Right. — This indicates 
plainly that no state has a legal or constitutional right to 
withdraw from the Union unless the Constitution be so 
amended as to give that right. It follows, therefore, that 
when the southern states withdrew from the Union, they 
did 3o without the sanction of the Constitution. This does 
not mean that those southern states which withdrew from 
the Union did not have the natural right to do so, or that 
they should be denounced for doing so ; it does mean, how- 
ever, that they did not and could not do so in accordance 
with the Constitution. The natural right of a person to 
protect and defend his life and liberty against the attacks 
of another person is higher than any law or constitution. 
This same principle applies to the people of a nation. If 
a government attempts to deprive them unjustly of life 
or of liberty, or of rights which they hold especially dear, 
they have the natural right — in fact, it is their duty — to 
throw off the authority of that government if possible. 
English laws did not give the Americans the right to 
withdraw from England and form the United States ; 
but it is generally conceded that the attacks on their 
liberties gave them the natural right to do this. It should 
be remembered distinctly, however, as indicated above, that 
many of the ablest men in the United States do not agree 
with some of the conclusions reached in this and the pre- 
ceding paragraph. 

637. The Northern and the Southern Attitude. — There 
can be no question that nearly all of those who fought in 



Secession and Beginnings 531 

the Confederate armies believed thoroughly that the North 
was trying to deprive them of their rights, and that they 
were therefore fighting for their liberties. Believing this, 
they would not have been worthy the name Americans 
if they had done otherwise. But on this point the south- 
ern people were mistaken. The North had no intention 
of interfering with their liberties ; the northern people 
were merely determined that there should be no further 
extension of slavery. The long and bitter disputes be- 
tween the North and South over the slavery question had 
caused the great mass of the southern people to misunder- 
stand the real intentions of the northern people. It will 
be seen a little later that the northern people sprang to 
arms, not for the purpose of destroying slavery, but to 
preserve the Union and to protect its flag ; and that the 
southern people sprang to arms, not for the purpose of 
defending slavery, but to prevent the northern armies 
from invading their soil, and, as they supposed, from 
destroying their rights and liberties. 

638. Secession and Formation of the Confederacy. — 
Nearly all the leaders of the South before the Civil War 
were slaveholders. The admission of California as a free 
state, and the result of the struggle in Kansas, had con- 
vinced the southern leaders that the South could no longer 
control the national government, and that the free-soil or 
non-slaveholding states would control the United States 
Senate as well as the House of Representatives. Many 
of the southern leaders believed, very likely, that the 
growing sentiment against slavery in the North would 
finally cause the northern people to force the abolition of 
slavery in the South. Many of them seemed to desire to 
form a nation in the South that would have slavery for its 
basis or corner stone. They thought that if they could 



532 The American Civil War 

do this they could preserve slavery without any further 
interference from the North. It was necessary, how- 
ever, to be very careful in taking so radical a step, for 
about two thirds of the voters in the South were not slave- 
holders ; and while this large number was in the habit of 
looking up to the slaveholders and following them as 
leaders, they might object to the destruction of the Union 
and to the formation of a new nation. The leaders of the 
South believed that the election of Lincoln would enable 
them to convince the people of the South that nothing but 
complete separation from the North would enable them to 
protect their liberties from the aggression of the northern 
people. They therefore decided to withdraw from the 
Union. South Carolina was the first state to take definite 
action. On December 20, i860, her state convention, which 
had been elected and called for the special purpose of con- 
sidering this question, passed a resolution declaring that 
South Carolina was no longer a part of the United States. 
Within six weeks, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, 
Louisiana, and Texas had taken similar action, and thus 
seven states had formally withdrawn from the Union. On 
February 4, 1861, delegates from all but one of these states 
met at Montgomery, Alabama, and formed a new nation 
which they called the Confederate States of America. 
This convention elected Jefferson Davis acting or provi- 
sional president, and Alexander H. Stephens acting or 
provisional vice-president. Davis and Stephens were 
afterward elected to the same positions by the people 
of the Confederacy. The senators and representatives 
from these states resigned their positions in the national 
Congress, and thus these seven states completed, so 
far as they were able, their separation from the United 
States. 



534 



The American Civil War 



639. Attitude of President Lincoln and of Confederate 
Leaders. — After the southern states had seceded they 
began to take possession of the forts, arsenals, and other 
United States property within their borders. President 
Buchanan made no real attempt to prevent this. When Lin- 
coln on March 
4, 1 86 1, took the 
oath of office 
prescribed by 
the Constitution, 
he stated in his 
address that he 
had no intention 
whatever of in- 
terfering with 
slavery where it 
already existed ; 
but he main- 
tained that no 
state could le- 
gally withdraw 
from the Union, 
and that he pro- 
posed to hold 

all the national 
Tames Buchanan , , 

J property and to 

*enforce the national laws in all the states. He also said 
in his address that he hoped there would be no bloodshed 
or trouble of any kind, and that if any occurred, it would 
be forced upon the national authority. By his oath of office 
and in accordance with his interpretation of the Constitu- 
tion of the United States, Lincoln was bound to do what 
he said he intended to do. On the other hand, the Con- 




Secession and Beginnings 



535 



federate States of America were bound to drive from their 
borders the authority of the United States, for they could 
not be a nation and at the same time permit the laws 
of the United States to be enforced within their borders. 
This condition of affairs, of course, meant civil war, the 




Bombardment of Fort Sumter 



only question being as to which side would make the first 
attack. Lincoln's policy compelled the government of the 
Confederacy to do this. 

640. Attack on Fort Sumter. — This fort, in South Caro- 
lina, was one of the few in the Confederacy that still 
remained in control of the national government. Lincoln 
decided to send food and supplies to this fort. When the 
government of the Confederacy learned this, it ordered 
the Confederate general Beauregard to demand of Major 
Anderson, who was in command of the fort, that he sur- 



536 The American Civil War 

render it. Anderson refused. The Confederate army then 
opened a heavy cannon fire on the fort. This was on April 
12, 1 86 1. Two days later Anderson was compelled to sur- 
render, although no one had been killed or even seriously 
wounded on either side. This aroused and united the 
people of the North as nothing else could have done. 
The question of slavery at once sank out of sight. The 
northern people demanded that the honor of the flag be 
maintained, and that the Union be preserved. 

641. Lincoln's First Call for Troops ; further Secessions. 

— The day after the surrender of Fort Sumter, Lincoln 
issued a proclamation in which he requested the states to 
raise seventy-five thousand soldiers in order that he might 
be able to enforce the national laws in the Confederacy. 
Lincoln's call for seventy-five thousand soldiers for use 
against the Confederacy aroused and united the people of 
the South, and caused them also to forget the question 
of slavery. The great mass of the southern people now 
believed that the North intended to destroy their rights and 
liberties. This belief united them in the determination that 
no northern army should ever invade the South. During 
April and May, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and 
Arkansas withdrew from the Union and joined the Confed- 
eracy. The capital of the Confederate States was now 
removed to Richmond, Virginia. The northwestern part 
of that state, however, refused to join the Confederacy, 
and in 1863 it was admitted to the Union as the state of 
West Virginia. 

642. Conditions immediately after Fall of Fort Sumter. 

— It is very difficult for those who were not living during 
the Civil War to understand and realize fully the intense 
excitement and bitter feeling which the attack on Fort 
Sumter and Lincoln's first call for soldiers created in 



Secession and Beginnings 537 

both the North and the South. The editorials and the 
articles which appeared in the newspapers and magazines 
at that time indicate that the feeling could hardly have been 
much stronger or the excitement much more intense. The 
Federal government and the Confederate government each 
began to raise and equip armies. Many more men wished 
to become soldiers than were desired or could be accepted. 
Very few people, however, thought the war would last long, 
and each side expected an easy victory over the other. 
The people of both sections were soon to realize their 
mistake. 

643. Battle of Bull Run ; Results. — A Union army 
attacked a Confederate army at a little town in Virginia 
called Manassas Junction, which is about thirty-five miles 
southwest of Washington and is located on a little creek 
called Bull Run. This battle, known as the battle of 
Bull Run, was a complete victory for the Confederates. 
The Union army fled in confusion from the field. The 
result of this battle caused the national government and 
the people of the North to realize for the first time that 
they must prepare for a great war if they wished to 
force the Confederate states back into the Union. The 
North was now more determined than ever to do this. 
Congress at once directed Lincoln to raise and equip an 
army of five hundred thousand men. At first many of the 
southern people thought that the battle of Bull Run would 
end the war ; but when they saw the North raising immense 
armies, they also began to realize for the first time the real 
nature of the conflict that was just beginning. The Con- 
federate government hastened the organization and equip- 
ment of great armies in order to meet those which the 
North was organizing. The battle of Bull Run, therefore, 
was quite important, because it taught the people that a 



538 The American Civil War 

great war was at hand, and caused the national govern- 
ment and the Confederate government each to begin 
gigantic preparations for that great struggle. 



CAMPAIGNS 

644. Introductory. — The campaigns of the Civil War 
were so extensive and included so many battles that it 
requires a book of at least four or five hundred pages to 
give them even a fair treatment. In a history of the 
United States for school use, therefore, they can be outlined 
only in a general way. In the discussions which follow an 
attempt is made to give a clear idea of the purpose, more 
important battles, and result of each campaign, but no 
attempt is made to go into detail. Pupils should read, if 
possible, some larger work on this war in order to get a 
broader and fuller idea of the great struggle which in- 
volved the very life of the nation. The fourth volume of 
Hart's " Source Readers of American History " will give an 
excellent idea of the real spirit and feeling which existed 
among the people at that time, and of the actual conditions 
and experiences of army life. 

645. Organization and Work of Northern Armies. — The 
object of the national government was to defeat the Con- 
federate armies, invade the Confederacy, and compel the 
seceded states to come back into the Union. To accom- 
plish this, the North built a navy and organized the great 
Army of the Potomac and a number of great armies in the 
West. The Army of the Potomac was to defend Washington 
and capture Richmond. The armies of the West were to 
secure control of the Mississippi and thus separate the Con- 
federate states of Texas, Louisiana, and Arkansas from the 
other Confederate states, drive the Confederate armies out 



Campaigns 539 

of Kentucky and Tennessee, and invade the Confederate 
states farther south. The navy was to blockade all the 
southern ports, so as to prevent the Confederacy from 
securing any assistance or supplies from other nations. 

646. Organization and Work of Southern Armies. — The 
object of the Confederate government was to defeat the 
northern armies and compel the national government to 
permit the seceded states to become an independent nation. 
To accomplish this, the South organized the great Army of 
Northern Virginia and a number of great western armies. 
The western armies were to oppose and defeat the northern 
armies in the West. The Army of Northern Virginia was 
to oppose and defeat the Army of the Potomac. In one 
respect the Army of Northern Virginia differed from all 
the northern armies and from all the southern armies. It 
was the only one that had the same commander during 
almost the entire war. Robert E. Lee was its commander. 

647. General Lee was a native of Virginia, and a son of 
Light-Horse Harry Lee of the Revolution, whose mother 
was a sweetheart of Washington's in his youthful days. 
When the Civil War began, Lee was a general in the army 
of the United States ; but when his native state seceded, 
he felt that it was his duty to follow her and defend the 
cause which she had taken up. Lee was one of the very 
ablest generals that the war produced on either side. The 
successes of the Army of Northern Virginia were due in 
no small degree to his military genius. He was a man of 
high and noble character, and while he scarcely knew what 
personal fear meant, his nature and disposition were kind 
and generous. General Lee deserves to be thought well 
of by the entire nation — North as well as South. 

648. The Three Great Campaigns of the Civil War. — 
In order to add clearness to the treatment of the land 




Robert E. Lee 



540 



Campaigns 541 

campaigns of the Civil War, they will be discussed under 
these three general heads: (a) the Eastern Campaign; 
{b) the Western Campaign; (c) the Campaign of 1864- 
1865. The Eastern Campaign will include the contest be- 
tween the Army of the Potomac and the Army of Northern 
Virginia to the time Grant became commander in chief 
of the Union armies, which was in March, 1864; the 
Western Campaign will include the war in the West up 
to that time; and the Campaign of 1 864-1 865 will include 
the work of Grant as commander in chief. In order to 
make the treatment of these campaigns somewhat more 
logical, the Eastern Campaign will be taken up first. 

649. The First Advance on Richmond. — Soon after the 
battle of Bull Run, in July, 1861, General McClellan was 
placed in command of the Army of the Potomac. He was 
directed to capture Richmond. He devoted about seven 
months to organizing and drilling his army. By the latter 
part of February, 1862, he had a well organized and 
equipped army of about one hundred and seventy-five 
thousand men. Two plans were proposed for reaching 
Richmond. The authorities at Washington thought that 
the better plan was for the army to march directly south. 
But McClellan objected to this because of the many rivers 
that it would be necessary to cross, and because the Con- 
federates had erected strong fortifications between the 
Potomac and Richmond. He advised that the army be 
transferred by water to Yorktown, Virginia, and from there 
proceed against the capital of the Confederacy. McClellan's 
plan was at last accepted by Lincoln and his advisers. 

650. Failure of Richmond Campaign ; Army returns to 
Washington. — About seventy-five thousand men were 
retained for the protection of Washington, and an army 
of about one hundred thousand under the command of 



Campaigns 543 

McClellan was landed near Yorktown. Much valuable 
time was consumed in the capture of that city, but at last 
the Army of the Potomac began its advance on Richmond. 
A number of severe battles were fought, in which the losses 
on both sides were heavy. The Union forces came within 
about ten miles of the Confederate capital, but McClellan 
retreated to Harrison's Landing on the James River, al- 
though his army was larger than the army under Lee. 
Meanwhile General Stonewall Jackson marched up the 
Shenandoah Valley with a division of Lee's army, and in 
several battles completely defeated several divisions of the 
Union army. Lee had instructed Jackson to attempt the 
capture of the city of Washington, or at least threaten to 
do so, in order to induce the national government to bring 
back McClellan's army for the defense of that city. This 
is actually what Jackson's success caused the authorities at 
Washington to do. In August, McClellan and his army 
sailed for the North, and thus the first attempt to capture 
Richmond ended in a complete failure. The total loss on 
both sides as a result of the fighting around Richmond 
was nearly forty thousand. 

651. The Battles of Bull Run, Antietam, and Fredericks- 
burg. — ■ No sooner had Lee gotten rid of McClellan's 
army on the James River than he marched rapidly north- 
ward, joined forces with Jackson, and in the second 
battle of Bull Run, on August 29-30, inflicted a crushing 
defeat on the Union army, now under the command of 
General Pope. Lee then marched into Maryland for the 
purpose of invading the North. The combined Union 
army, which had again been placed under the command 
of General McClellan, met him at Antietam. In the battle 
which followed the Union loss was about twelve thousand 
and the Confederate loss about ten thousand. After this 



544 The American Civil War 

bloody battle Lee retreated into Virginia and erected forti- 
fications near Fredericksburg, just south of the Rappahan- 
nock. Burnside, who had been placed in command of the 
Army of the Potomac after the battle of Antietam, attacked 
Lee in this strong position on December 13, and was de- 
feated with a loss of more than thirteen thousand men, the 
Confederate loss being less than five thousand. This battle 
ended the Eastern Campaign for the year 1862. The 
attempt of the Army of the Potomac to invade Virginia 
and capture Richmond had failed. In fact, the army had 
met with a number of serious defeats. 

652. Emancipation Proclamation. — In the face of these 
defeats Lincoln took a firm stand on the slavery question 
so far as slavery in the Confederacy was concerned. On 
September 22, 1862, he issued a proclamation in which he 
stated that all slaves would be free in all those states or 
parts of states that should still be carrying on war against 
the national government, on the first day of January, 1863. 
When that day came, he issued another proclamation set- 
ting free all slaves in the Confederacy except in those parts 
that were then occupied and controlled by the national 
government. The proclamation did not affect slavery in 
any way in the slave states of Delaware, Maryland, West 
Virginia, Kentucky, and Missouri, because they had not 
seceded from the Union. Neither did it affect slavery in 
Tennessee, and in some parts of several other Confederate 
states, because that territory was under the control of the 
national government on January 1, 1863. Neither did it 
abolish slavery in any part of the Confederacy. The proc- 
lamation simply freed those negroes who were held as 
slaves on January 1, 1863, in all parts of the Confederacy 
which were under the control of the Confederate govern- 
ment at that time. If the Confederacy should be forced 



Campaigns 545 

back into the Union, slavery might again be established 
in all this territory, but the slaves freed could not be 
reenslaved. The Emancipation Proclamation, therefore, 
was strictly a military measure. As commander in chief 

i/tyha*j &. /irt>£ZL/ offz&o A*v>+^- a~~o &* &£»> ft*--/**™ aS~ % 
46 >£££, a^Oj &>>*+o -/u^vc<^«<xvb~oc /-&*£&■ £0 £**; 

Facsimile of Portion of Emancipation Proclamation 

of the army and navy of the United States, Lincoln freed 
the slaves in the Confederate states in order to injure the 
Confederacy and hasten the end of the war. 

653. Abolition of Slavery. — But in spite of the Emanci- 
pation Proclamation being a military measure, the people of 
the United States and the people of other nations soon 




546 The American Civil War 

came to believe that the success of the Union armies meant 
the abolition of slavery in America. This created a stronger 
sentiment in favor of the North and weakened the position 
of the Confederacy. Personally, Lincoln strongly desired 
the total abolition of slavery in all parts of the United 
States. He induced Congress to pass a resolution offering 
to pay three hundred dollars for every slave in all the 
loyal slave states. None of these states, however, would 
accept the offer and abolish slavery. On April 16, 1862, 
Congress abolished slavery in the District of Columbia, 
and paid the owners three hundred dollars for each slave. 
The slaveholders in the loyal slave states were finally com- 
pelled to free all their slaves without any compensation, 
because soon after the war was over an amendment made 
to the Constitution abolished slavery in all parts of the 
United States, and no provision was made for any payment 
whatever. 

654. Battle of Chancellorsville ; Death of " Stonewall " 
Jackson. — After the battle of Fredericksburg, Hooker was 
placed in command of the Army of the Potomac. Toward 
the latter part of April he moved across the Rappahannock 
for the purpose of attacking Lee in his fortified position 
near Fredericksburg. Although Lee had but a few more 
than half as many men as Hooker, he attacked the Union 
army on May 1, at Chancellorsville, and in a three days' 
battle drove it back across the river in utter defeat. Stone- 
wall Jackson was accidentally killed in this battle by his 
own men. His death was a serious loss to the Confederate 
army, as he was one of Lee's ablest commanders. 

655. Battle of Gettysburg. — After his victory over 
Hooker, Lee decided to attempt for the second time the 
invasion of the North. General Meade was given com- 
mand of the Union army. On July 1 the Union and Con- 



Campaigns 



547 



federate armies met at Gettysburg in Pennsylvania. The 
battle raged for three days, and resulted in the defeat of 
the Confederate army. It was the greatest battle of the 
Civil War, and among the greatest of the world's battles. 
The fighting on both sides was heroic. The total loss in 
killed and wounded was over fifty thousand, or more than 




Scene at Battle of Gettysburg 



one fourth of all those engaged. Lee retreated into Vir- 
ginia and endeavored to secure more soldiers for his shat- 
tered army. 

656. Summary of Eastern Campaign. — There were no 
other important battles in the East until the spring of 1864, 
when General Grant was placed in command of all the 
Union forces. By that time almost three years had passed 



548 The American Civil War 

since the first battle of Bull Run. During this time the 
national government had not been successful in the inva- 
sion of Virginia, and the Army of the Potomac had suffered 
a number of reverses. Gettysburg was the only serious 
defeat which the Army of Northern Virginia had suffered, 
and that was serious only because Lee was unable to secure 
enough soldiers to take the place of those lost. The South 
was becoming exhausted, not only in supplies and money, 
but also in men for enlistment in the army. It is not easy 
to say to what extent the success of the Army of Northern 
Virginia, during the first three years of the war, was due 
to the fact that the Army of the Potomac had had five dif- 
erent commanders. The fact that the Confederate army 
was under the command of General Lee during nearly all 
of this time had a great deal to do with the reverses and 
defeats which the Union army suffered. At this point it 
is interesting to turn to the West and see what was taking 
place there between the opposing armies during the time 
that the two eastern armies had been engaged in this 
desperate struggle. 

657. The Western Commanders. — The war in the West 
developed many of the ablest Union commanders. Among 
them may be mentioned Grant, Sherman, Thomas, Sheri- 
dan, and others. Foremost was U. S. Grant. The war 
produced no greater general than he on either side. He 
was successful in every campaign which he undertook. 
His success was due in a large measure to his good 
common sense and stubbornness of purpose. He planned 
his work easily and with extreme common sense, and car- 
ried out the plans of his most important battles and cam- 
paigns as quietly and calmly as a business man carries out 
an everyday business transaction. His promotion from 
a small command to the position of lieutenant general 




549 



$$o The American Civil War 

or commander in chief was due in no respect to politi- 
cal influence or favoritism. In fact, during the first part 
of the war these influences were against him, and he was 
treated unjustly by his superior officers, and unjustly criti- 
cised in many ways. He did not complain, however, but 
performed his duty faithfully. His rapid advance in com- 
mand was due to his uniform success, and to that alone. 
Sherman was one of his closest friends, and perhaps his 
ablest commander. They were together during a large 
part of the war, and Grant had implicit confidence in him. 
Sherman had the ability to plan extensive campaigns and 
to carry them out successfully. Second in ability only to 
Grant and Sherman, among the northern commanders, 
were Thomas and Sheridan. If space permitted, other 
able Union commanders might be mentioned in this con- 
nection. 

658. Situation in West Tennessee early in 1862. — As 
has already been stated, the work of the Union armies 
in the West was to secure control of the Mississippi and 
occupy Kentucky, Tennessee, and the Confederate states 
farther south. The work of the Confederate armies in the 
West was to prevent the Union army from doing this. At 
first the Union and Confederate forces faced each other 
on a line extending from Cairo, Illinois, almost due east- 
ward across the state of Kentucky. In the early part of 
1862 Grant was placed in command of a small Union force 
that pecupied Cairo. Halleck had general command of all 
the forces in the West. 

659. Capture of Forts Donelson and Henry. — In Feb- 
ruary, Grant with the assistance of Commodore Foote 
moved against Fort Henry and Fort Donelson. Both of 
these forts were just south of the Kentucky line. Fort 
Henry was on the Tennessee River about fifty miles 




Ulysses S. Grant 



55 J 



$$2 The American Civil War 

from where it empties into the Ohio River; and Fort 
'Donelson was situated on the Cumberland a short dis- 
tance southwest of Fort Henry. It was very impor- 
tant that the Union forces get control of these forts, 
because their possession would give the Union gunboats 
control of the Cumberland and Tennessee rivers, and the 
gunboats would be of great assistance to the Union army 
in securing control of the state of Tennessee. Foote with 
his fleet of gunboats captured Fort Henry. Grant at- 
tacked Fort Donelson. After three days' fighting, Buckner, 
the commander of the Confederate forces, asked Grant 
what terms of surrender he would offer. Grant replied : 
" No terms except unconditional and immediate surrender 
will be accepted. I propose to move immediately upon 
your works." Buckner surrendered the fort and his army 
of fifteen thousand men. Thus Grant, on the 16th of 
February, won the first great Union victory. 

660. Island No. 10 ; Battle of Pittsburg Landing ; 
Corinth and Memphis. — Halleck now moved his army 
in several divisions southward toward Corinth in Mis- 
sissippi. One division moved down the west bank of 
the Mississippi and assisted Foote with his gunboats 
in the capture of Island No. 10, which the Confeder- 
ates had fortified in order to prevent the Union forces 
from securing control of the Mississippi. Grant with 
his division of the army marched south from Fort Don- 
elson across the state of Tennessee. On April 6 he 
was attacked by a Confederate army under Albert Sid- 
ney Johnston. This battle was fought near the south- 
ern boundary of Tennessee, on the Tennessee River at a 
place called Pittsburg Landing, about one hundred miles 
east of the Mississippi. The battle of Pittsburg Landing, 
or Shiloh, lasted about two days and resulted in the de- 



Campaigns 



553 



feat of the Confederate army and in the death of General 
Johnston. It was one of the most hotly contested battles 
of the war, the total loss being almost twenty-five thousand. 
Halleck now united the several divisions of his army, and 
during May and June captured Corinth and Memphis, the 
latter city being situated on the Mississippi in the south- 
west corner of Tennessee. 




Farragut in Mobile Bay 

661. The Capture of New Orleans. — During the month 
in which the battle of Pittsburg Landing was fought, 
Admiral Farragut with a Union fleet, assisted by a 
Union army under General Butler, began an attack on 
New Orleans and its defenses. This was a part of the 
Union campaign for securing control of the Mississippi. 
The possession of New Orleans and the mouth of the 



554 The American Civil War 

Mississippi was deemed of especial value to the national 
government, because their possession would deprive the 
Confederacy of the large amount of military and other 
supplies that were being brought into New Orleans, and 
into Texas by way of Mexico, and forwarded from there 
into the other Confederate states. The several mouths of 
the Mississippi which led to New Orleans had been well 
fortified and obstructed by the Confederates. Two forts 
had been built below the city in order to destroy any Union 
ships that might attempt its capture. In addition to this 
the Confederates had a small fleet of war vessels above 
these forts. The capture of the city seemed almost im- 
possible, but Farragut was a commander of unusual ability 
and determination. He removed the large chains and 
other obstructions which the Confederates had placed in 
the river, ran his vessels past the forts, and amid a storm 
of shot and shell destroyed the Confederate fleet and com- 
pelled the city to surrender. A little later he proceeded 
up the river and captured Baton Rouge. The capture of 
New Orleans was one of the greatest Union victories of 
the war, and, together with other victories which he won, it 
has justly given Admiral Farragut a high place among the 
greatest naval commanders of the world. 

662. Battles of Perryville and Murfreesboro. — After 
their defeat before New Orleans and the capture of 
Corinth and Memphis, the Confederates made a desperate 
attempt to recover the eastern part of Tennessee and Ken- 
tucky. The Confederate army that had been organized 
for this purpose was placed under the command of Gen- 
eral Bragg, who was a commander of ability. The Union 
forces had occupied nearly all of Kentucky and Tennessee. 
The detachments in eastern Tennessee and Kentucky were 
now united and reenforced. General Buell was placed in 



Campaigns S5S 

command of this united army. Bragg with his army of 
about thirty thousand marched from Chattanooga on the 
southern boundary of Tennessee northward across both 
Tennessee and Kentucky and reached the Ohio River. 
Buell followed him closely, and on October 8 the two 
armies came together at Perryville in Kentucky, where an 
important battle was fought. After this battle the Con- 
federate army returned to Chattanooga, but soon began 
another march northward. By this time Rosecrans, with 
Thomas and Sheridan for two of his generals, had been 
put in command of the Union army in eastern Tennessee, 
and was on the march to Chattanooga at the time Bragg 
started northward. The two armies met at Murfreesboro 
in Tennessee, and on December 3 1 a great battle was 
fought. The total loss was about twenty-two thousand, 
or more than one fourth of all those engaged. After 
this battle Bragg again returned to Chattanooga. This 
ended the year's work in the West. 

663. Result of Western Campaign in 1862. — At the 
beginning of 1862 the Confederacy controlled the Missis- 
sippi from just south of Cairo, Illinois, to its mouth and 
occupied much of Missouri, the southern part of Kentucky, 
and all the southern states south of these two. By the end 
of the year the Confederates had lost all of Missouri and 
Kentucky, nearly all of Tennessee, a part of Alabama, 
Mississippi, and Louisiana, and had lost control of the 
Mississippi except along the western boundary of the 
state of Mississippi and for a short distance south of that 
state. Vicksburg was the only important city on the Mis- 
sissippi which the Confederacy still possessed. From all 
this it becomes plain that the result of the campaign in 
the West was in striking contrast with the one in the East. 
It will be remembered that the Eastern Campaign for this 



5 56 The American Civil War 

year ended with Lee's invasion of Maryland and with the 
crushing defeat of the Union army under Burnside at 
Fredericksburg. 

664. Preliminary Operations against Vicksburg. — The 
most important work left for the Union armies in the 
West after 1862 was the capture of Vicksburg, which 
would give the national government complete control of 
the Mississippi. After the capture of Memphis in June, 
1862, Halleck was called to Washington and Grant was 
soon put in supreme command of all the Union forces 
in western Tennessee and northern Mississippi. He 
soon began to plan for the capture of Vicksburg, one 
of the most strongly fortified military posts in the Con- 
federacy. It was situated on high bluffs on the east 
bank of the Mississippi. Just north of these bluffs the 
country was so low and swampy that it was almost im- 
possible for an army to approach the city from that 
direction. Grant realized fully the great difficulty that 
would have to be overcome before this stronghold could 
be captured, but he was determined to succeed. Sher- 
man, one of Grant's commanders, made an attack on 
some of the defenses of Vicksburg, but was defeated. 
Grant then devoted several months in attempts to secure 
some advantage for an attack, but was not successful. He 
finally decided to transfer his army to a point below the 
city and make an attack from the south. He directed Por- 
ter, who was in command of the Union fleet of gunboats, 
to run his boats down the river past the forts during the 
night. Although the forts opened a terrific fire on the 
Union fleet, it succeeded in getting by them without much 
loss. Grant then marched his army down past Vicksburg 
on the west bank of the river, and Porter with his gunboats 
carried it across to the east bank. This action of Grant's 



Campaigns 557 

in placing his army below Vicksburg was the most daring 
thing attempted by any commander during the war. He 
had separated his army from its base of supplies in tire 
North, and two Confederate armies, each almost as large 
as his own, at once made preparations to attack him. 
One of these armies was in Vicksburg, under the com- 
mand of Pemberton ; the other was near Jackson, the 
capital of Mississippi, and was under the command of 
Joseph E. Johnston. By rapid marches, Grant threw his 
army between these two Confederate armies, and in sev- 
eral battles he defeated Johnston and captured the city of 
Jackson. He then turned upon the army of Pemberton 
and drove it back into Vicksburg. This was all accom- 
plished in a few days. It was the most daring and bril- 
liant work of the war, and proved that Grant possessed 
military genius of a high order. 

665. Siege and Capture of Vicksburg ; the Results. — 
The Union army was unable to carry the defenses of Vicks- 
burg by direct assault, and so settled down to a regular siege. 
The Confederate army within the city made a heroic de- 
fense. The storm of shot and shell from the Union cannon 
was so terrible that the people in the city were compelled 
to live in caves and cellars. Pemberton held the city for 
seven weeks, and surrendered only when his soldiers and 
the people were nearly starved. The surrender took place 
on July 4, 1863, just one day after Lee's defeat at Gettys- 
burg. A few days later the other places which were held 
by the Confederates on the Mississippi south of Vicksburg 
surrendered. Thus the national government at last secured 
control of the Mississippi from its mouth to its source. 
This completely separated the Confederacy and prevented 
Texas, Louisiana, and Arkansas from rendering much 
further assistance to the southern cause. 



$$$ The American Civil War 

666. Situation in East Tennessee ; Battle of Chicka 
mauga. — After the battle of Gettysburg and the sur- 
render of Vicksburg, the entire war, as far as the fighting 
was concerned, centered for a few months in eastern Ten- 
nessee at and near the cities of Chattanooga and Knoxville. 
Lee sent one division of his army into eastern Tennessee 
under the command of General Longstreet. General Burn- 
side, who was sent west with one division of the Union 
army, occupied Knoxville. A little later a division of 
the Army of the Potomac was sent into eastern Ten- 
nessee under the command of General Hooker. Before 
Vicksburg surrendered, and before Longstreet, Burn- 
side, or Hooker arrived, Rosecrans had succeeded in 
forcing Bragg to leave Chattanooga. As soon as Bragg 
received more soldiers, he attacked Rosecrans in the 
Chickamauga Valley near Chattanooga. This battle of 
Chickamauga, fought on the 19th and 20th of September, 
was one of the bloodiest and most desperate of the 
war. Had it not been for the stubborn and splendid 
resistance made by General Thomas with the left wing 
of the Union army, the Confederates would have won a 
great victory. As it was, the right wing of the Union 
army was defeated and driven from the field. 

667. Union Armies Besieged in Chattanooga and Knox- 
ville ; Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge. — Thomas 
was now put in command of this army. He was besieged 
in Chattanooga by Bragg, and Longstreet besieged Burn- 
side in Knoxville. Lincoln became alarmed at the situa- 
tion in eastern Tennessee. He ordered more soldiers sent 
from the East, and put Grant in command of all the Union 
armies in the West. Grant started at once for Chattanooga, 
placing Sherman in command of a part of the army 
that had captured Vicksburg, with instructions to follow 



Campaigns 5^9 

with it as rapidly as possible. After the soldiers under 
Sherman had arrived, and Grant had completed his plans, 
he ordered a general attack on the Confederate lines. 
This battle, which began on November 23, and ended on 
the 25th, included some magnificent fighting. The Union 
soldiers in the charges up Lookout Mountain and Mission- 
ary Ridge did not stop where their officers had commanded 
them to stop, but with wild cheers rushed on and carried 
the Confederate batteries at the top. The battle resulted 
in the complete defeat of the Confederate army, which was 
compelled to make a hurried retreat into Georgia. Grant 
now sent Sherman to the relief of Burnside at Knoxville. 
As Longstreet did not consider his army strong enough to 
meet both Sherman and Burnside, he marched back into 
Virginia, where he joined the Army of Northern Virginia 
under General Lee. 

668. The Result of the Campaign in the West in 1863, as 
in 1862, was in striking contrast with that of the campaign in 
the East. It is true that Lee had been defeated at the battle 
of Gettysburg, but he was able to remain in the northern 
part of Virginia in peace and safety. The Union army 
had prevented him from making a successful invasion of 
the North, but he had prevented the Union army from 
invading the South, although he had a smaller number 
of soldiers than had the Union commanders. It was quite 
different in the West. There the Union armies had won 
victory after victory. Grant had captured an entire Con- 
federate army at Vicksburg, had secured control of the 
Mississippi, and by the end of the year had inflicted 
a crushing defeat on the Confederate forces in eastern 
Tennessee. His successes had hushed all criticism, and 
they had secured for him the confidence of Lincoln and 
the northern people. 



560 



The American Civil War 



669. Grant made Lieutenant General; Condition of Oppos- 
ing Sections. — In March, 1864, Grant was made lieutenant 
general and given command of all Union armies in both 
the East and the West. He gave his personal atten- 




CAMJP_AIGN 
OF 1864-5 



tion to the Army of the Potomac, but directed the move- 
ments of all the Federal forces. The greatest Union 
commander and the greatest Confederate commander 
were now to face each other for the final struggle. In 
considering this final struggle, it should be remembered 



Campaigns 561 

that the South was about exhausted in military supplies, 
in money, and in soldiers. During the Eastern Campaign 
of 1 864-1 865 the Army of the Potomac under Grant was 
always nearly twice as large as the Army of Northern Vir- 
ginia under Lee. But in this connection it should also be 
remembered that the Union army was compelled to attack 
the Confederate army in fortified positions, which gave the 
Confederate force a great advantage. An army fighting 
behind fortifications need not be nearly as large as an 
army making an attack. 

670. Grant's Plans for 1864; Sherman's Atlanta Cam- 
paign. — Grant's military plans for 1864 included two 
general lines of work. He was to march south from the 
Potomac, defeat Lee, and capture Richmond. Sherman 
with the western army was to proceed south from eastern 
Tennessee, capture Atlanta, and from there march through 
the Confederacy to the Atlantic. On May 4, 1864, Sher- 
man began his march on Atlanta. He had under his 
command about one hundred thousand as good soldiers as 
ever went into battle. Opposed to him was a Confed- 
erate army of about seventy-five thousand, under the com- 
mand of Joseph E. Johnston, who was one of the ablest 
southern commanders. Johnston had built strong fortifi- 
cations between the southern boundary of Tennessee and 
Atlanta ; but Sherman, instead of attacking the Confederate 
army in these fortifications, marched around them and thus 
compelled Johnston gradually to retreat from one fortifica- 
tion to another. Although Johnston was conducting the 
retreat in a very able manner, the Confederate govern- 
ment removed him before Sherman reached Atlanta, and 
placed Hood in command of the Confederate army. 
Hood attacked Sherman several times, but was defeated 
with heavy loss. He then moved north in the hope that 



562 The American Civil War 

Sherman would follow him and thus give up his advance 
on Atlanta. Instead of doing this, Sherman put Thomas 
in command of a portion of his army, with directions to 
look after Hood. Thomas was compelled to retire to 
Nashville, Tennessee, and intrench his army at that 
place; but he gradually secured more soldiers and at last 
felt prepared to meet Hood. He left his fortification on 
December 1 5 and attacked the Confederate army. In a 
two days' battle he won a complete victory. Hood's army 
was never organized again as an army. Meanwhile Sher- 
man had captured Atlanta. 

671. Sherman's " March to the Sea." — After destroying 
the valuable military supplies at Atlanta, and the manu- 
factories in which they were made, Sherman began his 
" March to the Sea." His army of about sixty thousand 
men swept over a strip of country about sixty miles wide. 
On this march the Union soldiers destroyed the railroad 
and all military supplies, and lived by foraging. Sher- 
man reached the coast in the early part of December and 
entered the city of Savannah, Georgia, on the 20th. After 
resting his soldiers for about a month, he marched north 
and occupied Columbia, the capital of South Carolina. 
From there he continued into North Carolina, where he 
was at the close of the war. Sherman's march through 
the heart of the Confederacy did a great deal to convince 
the southern people that they could not succeed in the 
war, and tended to create opposition to the Confederate 
government. 

672. Grant's Advance on Richmond. — On the same day 
that Sherman began his march toward Atlanta, Grant 
began his march toward Richmond. The Army of the 
Potomac numbered about one hundred and twenty thou- 
sand, and the Army of Northern Virginia between sixty 



Campaigns 563 

and eighty thousand.. By June 12 the Union army had 
reached the James River, but since starting south, on 
May 4, it had lost about sixty thousand men, or nearly 
as many as were in Lee's entire army. The Confed- 
erate loss was much smaller, which was due to the fact 
that the Confederates were on the defensive and fought 
behind intrenchments. From May 4 to May 12 the fight- 
ing had been almost continuous. Grant, unable to break 
through Lee's intrenched lines, was forced each time to 
march by his flank. Lee kept falling back, and kept his 
army between Grant and Richmond. 

673. Siege of Petersburg and Richmond : the Final Strug- 
gle. — At last Grant gave up all hope of capturing Richmond 
or of destroying Lee's army by direct advance. On June 12 
he began to transfer his army across the James River, and 
at once began a regular siege of Petersburg and Richmond. 
In order to stop this siege, Lee sent General Early with about 
seventeen thousand men to threaten an attack on the city 
of Washington. Early came within sight of the national 
capital, and had he not hesitated before the defenses of 
the city, he might have captured it. Grant had hurried 
soldiers north, and soon the city was safe. Sheridan was 
placed in command of these troops, and after a series of 
battles succeeded in driving the Confederates out of the 
Shenandoah Valley. He destroyed everything in this 
valley on which an army could live, and thereafter no 
Confederate army threatened the city of Washington. 
Meanwhile the Union forces continued to press the siege 
of Petersburg and Richmond. All through the winter and 
spring Grant drew his lines closer and closer around these 
places, and lost many soldiers in assaulting their defenses. 
At last Lee was forced to abandon Richmond. He at- 
tempted to escape westward, but a division of the Union 



5 6 4 



The American Civil War 



army under Sheridan barred his way.- This convinced him 
that further resistance was useless. 

674. Lee's Surrender at Appomattox; End of the Civil 
War. — On April 9, 1865, Lee surrendered the Army of 
Northern Virginia to Grant at Appomattox Court House, 
a little place about seventy miles west of Richmond. Gen- 




The McLean House, Appomattox 
In this house the articles of surrender were drawn up 

eral Lee and all his commanders and soldiers were per- 
mitted to go to their homes, and those who had horses and 
side arms were permitted to keep them. The Union sol- 
diers did not cheer or do anything to humiliate their heroic 
foes. The magnificent record which the Army of Northern 
Virginia had made, and the honest belief of its soldiers 
that they were fighting for their rights, fully entitled the 
Confederates to this generous treatment. The surrender 



The Work of the Navy 565 

of Lee marked the end of the Civil War, although some 
of the Confederate armies did not surrender until a little 
later. The Union armies, which at this time consisted of 
almost one million men, were soon disbanded. This vast 
number of soldiers returned to their homes quietly and 
were soon engaged again in various occupations. 

THE WORK OF THE NAVY 

675. Necessity for Blockade of the Southern Ports. — As 

there were not many manufactories in the South, the Con- 
federacy was not able to manufacture enough military 
supplies for its armies or to supply the demand of the 
southern people for manufactured goods. All these could 
be secured from other nations, however, unless such trade 
was interfered with ; for the sale of cotton, tobacco, and 
rice to Europe would have given the Confederate govern- 
ment and the Confederate people ample funds with which 
to purchase such goods and material. President Lincoln 
saw clearly at the beginning of the war the great injury to 
the Confederacy that would result if her ports could be 
blockaded so that she could not carry on any trade with 
the countries of Europe. 

676. Difficulties of Blockade. — On April 19, 1861, five 
clays after Fort Sumter surrendered, President Lincoln 
issued a proclamation in which he declared a blockade of 
all the Confederate ports ; and later, when Virginia and 
North Carolina seceded, their ports were included in this 
blockade. But proclamations could not prevent the Con- 
federacy from trading with Europe. In order to do this it 
was absolutely necessary for Union vessels actually to block- 
ade the southern ports, and to capture or destroy those 
vessels that might attempt to trade with the Confederacy. 



566 The American Civil War 

As the coast of the Confederacy was about thirty-five 
hundred miles long, this was a very difficult thing to 
do, and would require a large number of vessels. When 
Lincoln issued his blockading proclamation, the United 
States government had at its command about twenty-four 
vessels in active service, none of which were of much 
value. These vessels would be of practically no use in 
so great and important a work as the blockading of the 
southern ports. 

677. Rapid Growth of Federal Navy ; its Effective Work. 
— To meet this condition, the national government built 
and equipped a navy with great rapidity. At the close of 
the war the navy of the United States contained nearly 
seven hundred vessels and more than fifty thousand sea- 
men. By the close of the year 1861 the blockade was 
fairly well effected, and as the war progressed it became 
more and more effective. This work of the navy in shut- 
ting out supplies from the South greatly injured the Con- 
federacy and hastened the end of the war. The navy was 
also of great value in directly aiding the Union armies on 
land. This has already been seen in its capture of New 
Orleans, and in the assistance which it rendered Grant on 
the Mississippi. As it was almost impossible to guard 
completely the entire coast line of the Confederacy, many 
vessels, known as blockade runners, would slip past the 
Union vessels in the night and succeed in bringing sup- 
plies to the Confederates and in buying cotton and 
tobacco. During the war the Union vessels either cap- 
tured or destroyed more than fifteen hundred of these 
blockade runners. 

678. Effect of the War on Federal Commerce. — The 
Confederacy, of course, did what it could to injure the 
commerce and shipping of the North. In order to do 



The Work of the Navy 567 

this the Confederates built and equipped vessels that cap- 
tured or destroyed the merchant vessels that belonged to the 
northern people. They did not, however, interfere with 
vessels trading with the North unless they were sailing 
under the American flag. This was because the Confed- 
eracy did not have a navy, and could not therefore declare 
a blockade of the northern ports and forbid other nations 
to trade with the North. The Confederate vessels which 
were fitted out to attack the merchant ships of the North 
were called commerce destroyers. Of the numerous vessels 
of this kind, those which did the most damage to northern 
commerce were the Alabama, the Florida, and the Shenan- 
doah. All of these vessels were either built or purchased 
in England, not only with the full knowledge of the Eng- 
lish government, but in some cases with the actual conni- 
vance of that government. 

679. Geneva Award. — In 1872 a board of arbitration, to 
which this question had been submitted, decided that Eng- 
land should pay to the United States the sum of fifteen and 
one-half million dollars on account of the injury done to 
American commerce during the war by the Confederate 
commerce destroyers which had been fitted out in English 
ports. This settlement is known as the Geneva Award. 
The fifteen and one-half million dollars, however, did in 
no wise pay for the injury which these vessels did to the 
American shipping industry. Their destruction of more 
than two hundred and fifty northern merchant vessels was 
not the real injury which they inflicted on the shipping 
industry of the nation. As has already been stated, the 
shipping industry of the United States in i860 was larger 
than that of any other nation. The fear that southern 
commerce destroyers would capture their merchant vessels 
caused the northern people to sell, during the war, nearly 



568 The American Civil War 

half of their ships. The shipping industry of the United 
States has never recovered from this. 

680. Revolution in Naval Warfare. — When Virginia 
seceded, the commander in charge of the United States 
navy yard at Norfolk, at the mouth of the James River 
in Virginia, sank the Union vessels so as to prevent them 
from falling into the hands of the Confederates. One of 
those sunk was called the Merrimac. The Confederates 
raised this vessel, covered it with a double plating of iron, 
and called it the Virginia. All the war ships in the 
world at that time were built of wood, although several 
iron-covered vessels were then being built in England 
and France. While the Merrimac was being remod- 
eled, another small iron vessel was being built in New 
York by John Ericsson. This vessel was called the Moni- 
tor. It was covered heavily with iron, and its deck was 
scarcely above the water. In the middle of this vessel 
was a round turret which contained two large guns and 
which could be revolved slowly by machinery that was 
placed below the deck. At the time the Virginia was 
completed there were a number of Union war vessels in 
Hampton Roads at the mouth of the James River. Just 
south of these vessels, in the little arm of water that leads 
to the old Union navy yard at Norfolk, was the Virginia. 
On March 8, 1862, this vessel steamed out and attacked 
the Union ships. The Cumberland, which was a powerful 
man-of-war, was sunk by the Virginia, and the Congress 
was compelled to surrender. Union guns were unable to 
injure the iron sides of the Virginia. She steamed back 
to the Confederate fort with the intention of continuing 
the destruction of the Union fleet next morning. The 
news of this battle was telegraphed to the national govern- 
ment and to the people of the North. The destruction of 



The Work of the Navy 



5 6 9 



the two Union vessels caused great excitement, because it 
looked as though this new Confederate vessel could de- 
stroy the entire Union navy. Fortunately for the North, 
the iron Monitor arrived from New York during the night. 
In the battle which took place the next day neither vessel 
was able to inflict much injury on the other ; but the Vir- 




THE Fight between the Monitor and the Merrimac 

ginia sought the protection of the Confederate batteries 
and made no further attempt to destroy Union ships. 
This battle between two iron ships was perhaps the most 
important single event of the war, because it proved that 
a few ironclads could destroy the largest wooden navy 
afloat. A complete revolution in naval construction now 
took place, and the wooden war vessels of the world were 
rapidly supplanted by iron-protected fighting machines. 



5 jo The American Civil War 

RESULTS 

681. The Main Results of the War were the destruction 
of slavery ; the great industrial development of the South 
which the destruction of slavery made possible ; the en- 
franchisement of the negro, and the race problem — not 
yet settled — which this enfranchisement created. Since 
the war the industrial development of the South has 
been extremely rapid. Iron and coal fields second to 
none in the world have been discovered. The produc- 
tion of cotton has vastly increased, and manufacturing 
establishments of every kind have been springing into 
existence. Another important result of the war has been 
the unification of the nation. Sectional feeling has al- 
most disappeared because slavery, its cause, has been re- 
moved. It is only those men who were not brave enough 
to enter the Civil War, or who would not have been brave 
enough to enter that war had they lived then, who still try 
to keep alive the bitter feeling which existed at that time. 
Old Union soldiers and old Confederate soldiers meet from 
year to year upon the battlefields of the Civil War and 
talk about the stirring events of that time in the most 
friendly spirit and with the most friendly feeling. During 
the Spanish-American War old Confederate soldiers fought 
side by side with old Union soldiers who had opposed them 
on many a bloody battlefield of the Civil War. The south- 
ern people are as loyal and patriotic in their support of the 
Stars and Stripes as are the people of any other part of 
the country. 



Questions and Topics 571 

QUESTIONS AND TOPICS 

RESOURCES OF THE NORTH AND THE SOUTH 

Questions for Class Recitations 

(In connection with the questions on the Civil War, each pupil 
should read the fourth number of Hart's " Source Readers in American 
History." See " Explanatory and Suggestive," page ix.) Explain briefly 
how the difference in the topography, climate, and soil of the North and 
South was the main or fundamental cause of the American Civil War. 
Beginning with the Missouri Compromise, explain briefly the political 
events which led directly to this war. Explain carefully how the South 
in two respects had an advantage of the North at the beginning of the 
Civil War. After the war began, why was the North able to secure 
ample military and other supplies, and why was the South unable to do 
so? Compare the Union states with the Confederate states in regard 
to population, and explain the causes of this difference. In what way 
was the difference in population of advantage to the North? Compare 
the North and the South in regard to means of transportation, and explain 
how the difference between the two sections in this respect affected the 
result of the Civil War. Discuss the financial resources of the North 
and South during the war, and explain how the difference between the 
two sections in this respect affected the result of the war. Discuss the 
industrial resources of the North and South, and explain how the dif- 
ference between the two sections in this respect affected the result of 
the war. Explain the general effect on the result of the war of the 
difference between the general resources of the North and South. 

SECESSION AND BEGINNINGS 

Questions for Class Recitations 

Explain the two views which had been held regarding the right of 
secession. What is your opinion on this question ? Explain very care- 
fully those principles of the Constitution which indicate that no state 
had the legal or constitutional right to secede. Explain what is meant 
by the natural right of a person to defend and protect his life and 



572 The American Civil War 

liberty. Assuming that no state could secede or withdraw from the 
Union in accordance with the Constitution, by what right can the 
secession of the southern states be justified? What did the southern 
people believe the North wished to do in regard to their rights and 
liberties? Explain how this belief would justify the action of the 
southern people in regard to the war. Explain why the admission of 
California to the Union as a free state and the result of the struggle in 
Kansas made the southern leaders anxious to withdraw from the 
Union. Why did the southern leaders decide to bring about secession 
when Lincoln was elected President? Discuss the secession of the 
southern states and the formation of the Confederate States of 
America. 

What was the attitude of the Confederacy toward the national prop- 
erty within its borders? What was Lincoln's attitude toward this 
property? What was his attitude as to the legal right of a state to 
secede? What did he declare his policy would be on these questions? 
Why was the Confederacy bound to oppose his policy? Why were 
these two views sure to lead to war? Describe the fall of Fort Sumter. 
What effect did the fall of this fort have on Lincoln and on the people 
of the North? Explain the effect Lincoln's call for soldiers had on 
the people of the Confederacy and on the people of some of those 
slave states which had not seceded. Describe the battle of Bull Run. 
What effect did this battle have on the national government? What 
effect did it have on the people of the North? What effect did it have 
on the people of the Confederacy ? 



CAMPAIGNS 
Questions for Class Recitations 

Why cannot the campaigns of the Civil War be discussed very fully 
in a history of the United States for school use? What larger history 
will you be able to read on the battles and campaigns of the Civil 
War? 

What was the general object of the national government in the war? 
What armies did it organize? What work in the war was assigned to 
each of these armies? What was the general object of the Confederacy 
in this war? What armies did it organize? What work were these 



Questions and Topics 573 

armies expected to do? In what respect did the Army of Northern 
Virginia differ from the other armies ? Describe the character and ability 
of General Lee. What will each of the campaigns outlined in this his- 
tory include? 

Give a rather full discussion of the first advance on Richmond. 
(Discussing a battle as used in these questions means to state the con- 
ditions or circumstances that led to the battle, describe the battle, state 
the results, and give the importance of these results.) Discuss the 
battles of Bull Run, Antietam, and Fredericksburg. Give a careful 
explanation of Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation. Explain the 
proclamation which he issued regarding slavery, on January i, 1863. 
Explain carefully just how and to what extent these proclamations 
affected slavery. Why did Lincoln free the slaves in the Confederacy? 
In what way did this affect the war? Explain Lincoln's plans regarding 
slavery in the loyal free states, and state with what success it met. 
Discuss the battles of Chancellorsville and Gettysburg. Why was the 
battle of Gettysburg a serious defeat for the Confederacy? Discuss 
the general results of the Eastern Campaign. Why was the Army of 
the Potomac not more successful in accomplishing what it was expected 
to accomplish ? (At this point each pupil should draw a map that will 
give a clear and complete idea of the Eastern Campaign.) 

Describe the character and ability of General Grant. Describe the 
character and ability of General Sherman. What can you say about 
Thomas, Sheridan, and other Union commanders of the West? Why 
was it important for the Union armies to capture Fort Henry and Fort 
Donels.on ? Describe the capture of these two forts. Discuss the 
battle of Pittsburg Landing. What other cities did the Union army 
capture soon after this battle? Why was it valuable for the national 
government to secure possession of New Orleans ? Give a rather full 
discussion of the capture of this city. Discuss the battles of Perry ville 
and Murfreesboro. Compare carefully the result of the Western Cam- 
paign for 1862 with the result of the Eastern Campaign for this same 
year. Give a full discussion of the capture of Vicksburg. Give a full 
discussion of the battle of Chickamauga and Chattanooga. Compare 
carefully the result of the campaign in the West for the year 1863 with 
the result of the campaign in the East of that year. Explain what effect 
the Western Campaign had on the reputation of Grant and his position 
in the army. In considering the contest between Grant and Lee in the 
East, what conditions should receive careful consideration? (At this 



574 The American Civil War 

point each pupil should draw a map giving a clear and complete idea 
of the Western Campaign.) 

What were Grant's plans for the war after he became Commander in 
Chief ? Discuss the capture of Atlanta. Discuss the contest between 
Thomas and Hood. Discuss Sherman's " March to the Sea.*' What 
did Sherman do after he had captured Savannah ? Give a careful dis- 
cussion of Grant's campaign in the East from May 4 to June 12, 
1864. What did Grant do after he decided that he could not capture 
Richmond by direct advance? What was the result of Lee's attempt 
to draw Grant away from the siege at Petersburg and Richmond? 
Describe the siege of Petersburg and Richmond. Discuss the surrender 
of the Army of Northern Virginia. (At this point each pupil should 
draw a map giving a clear and complete idea of the campaigns of 
1864-1865.) 

THE WORK OF THE NAVY 
Questions for Class Recitations 

Explain why the Confederacy could not supply enough war material 
for its armies and manufactured goods for its people. Explain fully 
why the national government was so very anxious to blockade the 
Confederate ports. What was absolutely necessary in order to block- 
ade these ports? Describe the condition of the American navy at the 
beginning of the Civil War. Describe its condition at the end of that 
war. To what extent was the North successful in blockading the 
Confederate ports? Explain how this hastened the end of the war. 
Explain in what way the navy gave direct assistance to the Union 
army in its land campaigns. 

What is a commerce destroyer? What was the object of the Con- 
federates in building and equipping these vessels? Why did the Eng- 
lish government permit these vessels to be built in England? Discuss 
the Geneva Award. Explain in what way these Confederate commerce 
destroyers did a great injury to the American shipping industry in 
addition to the value of the ships which they actually destroyed. 
Describe the Virginia (Merrimac) and the Monitor. What was the 
result of the first day's work of the Virginia f What effect did this 
have on the national government and on the people of the North? 
Describe the battle between the Virginia and the Monitor. What was 
the effect of this battle on the future construction of war vessels? 



Questions and Topics 575 

RESULTS 

Questions for Class Recitations 

State and explain some of the main results of the Civil War. Ex- 
plain why the war tended to unify the nation. Give some illustrations 
that tend to prove this. 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Give a careful comparison and discussion of the resources of the 
Union and Confederate states. Discuss secession and the right of 
secession. Discuss the fall of Fort Sumter and the first battle of Bull 
Run. Discuss the scope and nature of the campaigns of the Civil 
War. Give a full discussion of the Eastern Campaign. Give a full 
discussion of the Western Campaign. Give a full discussion of the 
campaign of 1864-1865. Discuss the work of the navy in the Civil 
War. Discuss the results of the war. 



RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOP- 
MENT, AND EXPANSION 

RECONSTRUCTION OF THE CONFEDERATE STATES 

I. Relation of the Confederate States to the National Government 

II. The Death of Lincoln : his Character- and Ability 

III. The Reconstruction Policy of Johnson 

IV. The Reconstruction Policy of Congress 
V. Some Results of Reconstruction 

POLITICAL METHODS AND POLITICAL PARTIES 

I. Political Methods 
II. Political Parties 

FINANCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL LEGISLATION 

I. Financial Legislation 

i . The National Debt and the National Bank System 

2. Resumption of Specie Payment 

3. Gold and Silver Standards 
II. Tariff Legislation 

III. Industrial Combinations 

1. Corporations, Trusts, and Labor Organizations 

2. Laws relating to Corporations, Trusts, and Other Combinations 

FOREIGN RELATIONS 

I. Purchase of Alaska 

II. Treaty of Washington 

III. Application of the Monroe Doctrine 

IV. Growth of Arbitration 

S76 . 



Reconstruction of the Confederate States $yy 

V. The Spanish-American War 
i . Causes 

2. Campaigns 

3. Results 

VI. The Isthmian Canal 

INSTITUTIONAL LIFE 

I. Industrial Conditions 

1. Improvement in the Means of Transportation and Communi- 

cation 

2. Other Inventions and Discoveries 

3. Agriculture and Manufactories 

4. Commerce, Population, and Cities 

5. The New South 

6. The Development of the West 
II. Social Conditions 

III. Education 

1. Nature of Development 

2. The Public Elementary School System 

3. The Public High School System 

4. Colleges, Universities, and Special Schools 



2? 



578 Reconstruction, Development, Expansion 

RECONSTRUCTION OF THE CONFEDERATE STATES 

682. The Political Condition of the Seceded States. — At 
the end of the Civil War the government of the Con- 
federacy and the state government of each Confederate 
state was completely broken up. The national govern- 
ment was now confronted with the very serious problem 
of restoring those states which had composed the Confed- 
eracy to their proper political and constitutional relation 
to the Union. In order to do this it was necessary first to 
determine into just what relation to the national govern- 
ment they had been placed by secession. Some maintained 
that secession had reduced them to the condition of terri- 
tories, and that Congress could manage these territories 
as it pleased. Others maintained that the Confederate 
states had not lost their statehood, but only their constitu- 
tional rights as states, and that Congress could restore these 
rights in such manner as it might think best. 

683. Lincoln's Policy. — Lincoln had always held that 
a state could not legally secede, and that the Confederate 
States therefore were never legally out of the Union. He 
did not, however, believe this question worth considering 
as a basis for. getting the seceded states back into the 
Union. He maintained that the act of secession had sim- 
ply put these states out of their proper relation to the 
national government, and his object and purpose were to 
get them back into their proper relation as soon as pos- 
sible and as quietly as possible. The Constitution gives 
the President the right to pardon those who have com- 
mitted offenses against the United States. Lincoln be- 
lieved that this power gave him the right to pardon those 
who had seceded, and that the people in a seceded state 
who had been pardoned could form a state government, 



Reconstruction of the Confederate States 579 

and that each state would then be restored to its proper 
relation to the national government — or reconstructed, as 
it was called. 

684. Amnesty Proclamation. — Acting upon this theory of 
reconstruction, Lincoln issued a proclamation in December, 
1863, in which, with some exceptions, he promised pardon 
to all those who would lay down their arms and take an 
oath to support the Constitution and all laws and procla- 
mations which had been made concerning the freeing of 
slaves. He promised in this proclamation that a seceded 
state would be permitted to form a new state government 
as soon as the number of resident voters taking this oath 
in such state was one tenth as large as the number that 
had voted in that state in i860, and that such state would 
then be given full recognition by the national government. 
Before the end of the war, Tennessee, Arkansas, and 
Louisiana had formed new state governments in accord- 
ance with this proclamation. On April 11, two days after 
the surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia, Lincoln 
in an address indicated plainly that he intended to adopt 
the same liberal policy in regard to the reconstruction of 
the other Confederate states. 

685. Lincoln's Assassination ; the Plot. — Amid the 
thankful rejoicing of the northern people over the end of 
the war, and in the midst of his own glad thankfulness that 
the Union had been preserved, Lincoln was killed. He 
was shot about ten o'clock in the evening while attending 
Ford's Theater in Washington, and died a little after seven 
o'clock the next morning. The 14th of April was the day 
on which he was shot — just four years from that 14th of 
April on which Fort Sumter surrendered, and just four 
days from the day on which the Army of Northern Virginia 
surrendered. An actor by the name of John Wilkes Booth 



580 Reconstruction, Development, Expansion 

committed the murder. Booth was a half-crazy Confed- 
erate sympathizer. The murder of Lincoln was a part of 
a conspiracy to murder a number of the leading men of 
the nation ; but the only other one attacked was Seward, 
who at the time was confined to his bed by an injury sus- 
tained in an accident. Seward was not killed by the attack, 
but he was badly injured. Booth was shot and killed while 
resisting arrest, and nearly all those who had helped him 
plan the murder were either hanged or imprisoned. The 
Confederacy and southern people had nothing to do with 
this conspiracy. 

686. Tributes to Lincoln ; his Feeling toward the South. 
— -The death of Lincoln plunged the northern people 
from glad thanksgiving into the deepest sorrow. The 
news of his death profoundly moved the entire civilized 
world, for his great character, kind heart, and magnificent 
work had at last hushed all criticism and won the admira- 
tion and deep respect of almost every thinking man and 
woman in Europe. From every civilized nation came 
messages of genuine sorrow. While Lincoln's death was 
a great loss to the entire nation, it was an especially great 
loss to the South. He had no feeling of anger whatever 
toward the people of the Confederacy. On the contrary, 
he intended to help them in every way possible to recover 
from the effects of the war and to adapt themselves to the 
new conditions. He was the only man with power to con- 
trol the radicals of the North and prevent the bad conditions 
brought about in the South by the policy of reconstruction 
finally adopted. He had won the complete confidence of 
the northern people, who would have indorsed his kind and 
liberal policy in dealing with the unusual situation brought 
about by secession. Even the southern people were already 
coming to look upon him as their best friend. This was 



Reconstruction of the Confederate States 581 

perhaps the greatest tribute paid to his nature, character, 
and ability. 

687. Character and Rank of Lincoln. — In some respects 
Lincoln was the greatest man that ever entered public life 
in America. He was born and raised in a log cabin. Be- 
cause his parents were too poor to provide better light, he 
was often compelled to study by the light of the fireplace. 
During his entire life he did not attend school more than 
twelve months all together, yet some of his speeches and 
public papers will always rank as splendid examples of 
clear, pure, and elegant English. No President of the 
United States ever had to deal with conditions that were as 
difficult as were those which confronted him. His common 
sense, sound judgment, and great ability enabled him to 
handle and control men during the intense excitement which 
existed at critical moments in the struggle of the nation 
for existence. With this great ability was a nature that 
was extremely kind and sympathetic even toward those 
opposed to him. Throughout the war he believed and 
said that the southern people were so sincere in the belief 
that they were fighting for the right, that he and they 
prayed to the same God for success. 

688. The Reconstruction Policy of Johnson ; his Attitude 
toward the Seceded States. — When Lincoln died, Vice 
President Johnson became President. He decided to 
carry out Lincoln's policy of reconstruction, with but slight 
modification. As Congress was not in session during the 
summer and fall of 1865, he could proceed with the recon- 
struction of the seceded states without any interference 
from that department of the national government. On 
May 29, 1865, he issued a proclamation in which he 
stated the conditions on which the seceded states might 
form state governments and be readmitted to the Union. 



582 Reconstruction, Development, Expansion 



This proclamation was very much like the one Lincoln had 
issued on the same subject, but it differed in some impor- 
tant respects. In order to prevent those who were large 

slaveholders before the 
war from taking active 
part in the work of recon- 
struction, the proclama- 
tion provided that no 
one who owned property 
worth more than twenty 
thousand dollars could 
take the oath prescribed. 
The proclamation also 
required the states to 
ratify the Thirteenth 
Amendment to the Con- 
stitution before they 
would be considered fully 
reconstructed. Congress 
submitted this amend- 




Andrevv Johnson 



ment to the states in February, 1865. During the year it 
was ratified by the required number of states, and became 
a part of the Constitution in December of the same year. 
This amendment abolished slavery in all the states and in 
all the territories which belonged to the United States. The 
seceded states all ratified this amendment and complied 
with all the other conditions required in Johnson's procla- 
mation. When Congress met in 1865, every one of these 
states had been reconstructed. 

689. Southern Laws for the Regulation of the Freed- 
man. — But by that time some things had taken place in the 
South that had created in the North a strong opposition 
to President Johnson's policy of reconstruction. Many 



Reconstruction of the Confederate States 583 

of the new legislatures in the reconstructed states had 
passed laws which had created a very bad impression in the 
North. How to manage the large negro population which 
had just secured freedom was a most difficult question. The 
ex-slaves as a rule were ignorant and superstitious. They 
had been accustomed to depend on their masters for help as 
a child depends on its parents for protection and assistance. 
Their sudden freedom left many of them as helpless as 
children. If permitted to remain idle and roam over the 
country, they might become a positive danger to southern 
society. The new legislatures of the reconstructed states 
were compelled to face this dangerous situation and solve it 
in one way or another. It was perfectly absurd to suppose 
that in a few days, or in a few months, or even in a few 
years, the ignorant ex-slave could become an intelligent citi- 
zen with the ability to take care of himself. Some special 
laws regarding the large negro population seemed to the 
southern legislatures absolutely necessary for the protection 
of southern society. Acting on this belief, most of these 
legislatures passed laws which practically compelled the 
negro to work, and restricted his freedom in many ways. 
Some of these laws, however, indicated apparently that the 
southern states intended to keep the negro in a condition 
of semi-slavery ; but the southern people maintained that 
this was necessary until the ex-slaves should become intelli- 
gent and better able to take care of themselves. In the 
North, where the negro question as it existed in the South 
was not well understood, these southern laws regarding the 
negroes were viewed with grave suspicion. All through 
the summer and fall of 1865 the northern people became 
more and more convinced that the new legislatures of the 
reconstructed states were trying to annul the result of the 
war by virtually reenslaving the negroes. They thought 



584 Reconstruction, Development, Expansion 

that the reconstruction policy of Johnson was largely re- 
sponsible for this. The new Congress which met in De- 
cember represented this opinion, and it at once began 
to undo the work of reconstruction which Johnson had 
accomplished. 

690. Action of Congress as to Reconstructed States ; the 
Freedmen's Bureau. — When Congress met it refused to 
recognize the senators and representatives who had been 
elected by the reconstructed states. This gave those who 
were opposed to Johnson's policy a large majority in both 
the Senate and the House of Representatives. In March, 
1865, Congress established an office or bureau, called the 
Freedmen's Bureau. It was the duty of this bureau to 
look after and help negroes who had become free. The 
new Congress which met in December, 1865, enlarged the 
powers of the officers of this bureau so that they could inter- 
fere with the enforcement of the laws which the southern 
legislatures had passed for the control of the negroes. 
Johnson vetoed the bills which granted extra powers, but 
Congress passed them over his veto. 

691. The Fourteenth Amendment. — Soon after it had 
enacted the laws which enlarged the powers of the Freed- 
men's Bureau, Congress prepared the Fourteenth Amend- 
ment to the Constitution, and submitted it to the several 
states for their approval. This amendment contains sev- 
eral important provisions. The first section makes the 
negro a citizen and forbids any state to make any special 
law against him, such as the legislatures of the recon- 
structed states had passed. During the summer and fall 
of 1866 every one of those states which had seceded, except 
Tennessee, refused to ratify this amendment, and as their 
refusal prevented it from securing the approval of the 
required number of states, it was not adopted. At the 



Reconstruction of the Confederate States 585 

November election the people of the North strongly 
approved the reconstruction policy of Congress by electing 
a still larger number of radical Republicans to the House 
of Representatives. 

692. The Reconstruction Acts. — The rejection of the 
Fourteenth Amendment by the southern states caused 
Congress at its next meeting to take stronger measures 
than ever against those states. In the spring of 1867 it 
passed a series of acts which are known as the Recon- 
struction Acts. One act divided those states which had 
formed the Confederacy, except Tennessee, into five mili- 
tary districts, and placed each district under the command 
and control of an army officer. Another act gave the 
negro the right to vote but prevented many of the south- 
ern whites from voting. It was the duty of the army offi- 
cer in each military district to enforce these acts. Each 
state was required to frame and adopt a constitution that 
would guarantee the negro the right to vote. The election 
of a legislature as provided for in this new constitution 
was also required. The legislature thus elected was then 
to adopt the Fourteenth Amendment. Any seceded state 
that refused or neglected to do all these things would 
riot be permitted to exercise and enjoy the rights of a 
state. All the states affected by these acts except Vir- 
ginia, Georgia, Mississippi, and Texas complied with these 
conditions. In June, 1868, Congress declared all those 
states which had so complied fully reconstructed and 
entitled to all the rights of states. In July the Fourteenth 
Amendment was declared a part of the Constitution. 

693. The Fifteenth Amendment. — In February, 1869, 
Congress proposed the Fifteenth Amendment to the Con- 
stitution, and submitted it to the states. The states of Vir- 
ginia, Georgia, Mississippi, and Texas were now required 



586 Reconstruction, Development, Expansion 

to ratify this amendment in addition to complying with all 
•the conditions in the Reconstruction Acts. The Fifteenth 
Amendment gave the negro the right to vote, by declaring 
that " The right of citizens of the United States to vote 
shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by 
any state on account of race, color, or previous condition of 
servitude." This amendment became a part of the Con- 
stitution in 1870, and by 1871 Virginia, Georgia, Mississippi, 
and Texas had all ratified it, and thus the political recon- 
struction of the South was completed. 

694. Impeachment of the President. — One result of 
reconstruction was the impeachment of President Johnson. 
The feeling between the President and Congress was bit- 
ter. Johnson vetoed nearly all the acts of reconstruction, 
but Congress passed them over his veto. Stanton, who 
was Secretary of War under Lincoln, was strongly op- 
posed to Johnson and his policy of reconstruction. John- 
son determined to remove him from office because of 
this opposition. In order to prevent this, Congress passed 
a law — called the Tenure of Office Act — which made 
it necessary for the President to get the consent of the 
Senate to remove an officer whose appointment it was 
necessary for the Senate to approve. Johnson tried to 
remove Stanton in spite of this law, as he considered it 
unconstitutional. For this the House of Representatives 
impeached the President, but the Senate by one vote failed 
to convict him. Thoughtful men consider Johnson's im- 
peachment unfortunate, and believe that his conviction 
would have established a bad precedent. 

695. The Race Question. — President Johnson's impeach- 
ment was not the only unfortunate result of reconstruction. 
The reconstruction policy of Congress is responsible in a 
large measure for the existence to-day of the race question 



Reconstruction of the Confederate States 587 

in the South. In those states which were placed under 
military rule by the Reconstruction Acts, the southern 
people for a while were ruled by their former slaves 
and by immigrants from the North. Some of these immi- 
grants were excellent men ; but most of them were men 
of not very high character, and they came South for the 
express purpose of making money out of the unfortunate 
conditions which existed there. Under military rule they 
controlled the ignorant negro vote, and thereby controlled 
many of the state legislatures, and secured the passage of 
laws which robbed the southern people and enriched them- 
selves. All this naturally made the southern people feel 
bitter not only against these northern immigrants, who were 
called " Carpetbaggers," but toward the negro race also. 
This was the beginning of the active race question. The 
enfranchisement of the negro by the Constitution has kept 
this question alive. 

696. The Fifteenth Amendment further Considered. — It 
seems probable that the question should have been left to 
each individual state. In 1865 the people of Connecticut, 
Wisconsin, and Minnesota voted down the proposition to 
give the negroes in those states the right to vote, and in 
1867 the people of Ohio and Kansas did the same thing. 
There were but few negroes in those states, and they were 
far better qualified to vote than were those in the South. 
In a republic like the United States, the safety of govern- 
ment depends upon the intelligence of the voter. To give 
the ballot to the millions of ignorant and half-civilized 
negroes of the South was inviting the destruction of 
southern society. It would have been better, perhaps, as 
stated above, to have left to each state the question as to 
when the negro was qualified to exercise the important 
right of the franchise. 



588 Reconstruction, Development, Expansion 

POLITICAL METHODS AND POLITICAL PARTIES 

697. Australian Ballot System ; Selection of Candidates 
for Office. — The most important changes which have taken 
place in political methods since the Civil War are the 
enactment of the Civil Service Laws and the adoption of 
the Australian ballot system throughout the United States. 
The Australian ballot system secures a secret vote — that 
is, this system of voting enables a voter to cast his ballot 
without any one knowing for whom he has voted. This is 
very important, because a secret ballot tends to prevent 
the buying of votes, and tends to prevent politics and per- 
sonal influences from influencing voters in the selection of 
the candidates for whom they finally vote. The sacred- 
ness of the ballot cannot be watched and guarded too 
carefully. The success of representative government de- 
pends largely on an honest and intelligent ballot. The 
selection of candidates for office is of almost as great impor- 
tance. If the candidates are not honest and men of ability, 
it does not make so very much difference how carefully 
the ballot may be protected. It is the high duty of every 
person to take an active interest in the selection of the 
committees and conventions that control his political party 
and nominate his candidate for office. 

698. Civil Service Laws. — The enactment of these laws 
was another great advance in political matters. Under the 
Spoils System introduced into national politics during Jack- 
son's administration, men were often appointed to federal 
positions because of their politics, and not because they were 
especially qualified to do the work of the offices to which 
they had been appointed. Ever since Jackson's administra- 
tion many appointments of this kind have been made, and 
it has resulted in great injury to the people, because 





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590 Reconstruction, Development, Expansion 



their public work has not been well done by inefficient 
men who have been given these positions because they 
helped to elect the successful candidate. The object of 
the Civil Service Laws is to secure the appointment of 

men to public of- 
fice because of their 
ability, and not on 
account of their pol- 
itics. The first of 
these laws was 
passed in 1871. In 
that year Congress 
passed a law known 
as the Civil Service 
Reform Act. This 
law gave the Presi- 
dent the power to 
select a commission 
which should de- 
vise a better plan 
for the appointment 
of men to all offices 
under his control. 
Grant was anxious to enforce this law and better the civil 
service ; but the members of Congress, desiring the offices 
for political purposes, refused to vote money to carry out 
the reform. As a result, it proved of little value. In 1883 
Congress passed the "Pendleton Civil Service Act," giving 
the President the power to make appointments to certain 
offices by means of examination, and officers thus appointed 
could not be removed for political reasons. President 
Arthur placed a large number of offices under this civil serv- 
ice system, and President Cleveland increased the number. 




Chester A. Arthur 



Political Methods and Political Parties 591 



699. Political Parties. — With the exception of two ad- 
ministrations, embracing eight years, the Republican party 
has had control of the national government ever since 
Lincoln took the oath of office as President on March 4, 
1 86 1. During this time the Democratic party has always 
been a great and powerful party, has exerted a strong 
influence on national affairs, and has twice elected a Presi- 
dent. The Republican Presidents during this period were 
Lincoln, 1861-1865 ; Johnson, 1865-1869; Grant, 1869- 
1877; Hayes, 1877-1881; Garfield, March 4, 1881-Septem- 
ber 19, 1881; Arthur, 1881-1885; Harrison, 1889-1893; 
McKinley, 1897-Sep- 
tember 14, 1901 ; Roose- 
velt, 1901-1 905. Lincoln, 
Garfield, and McKinley 
were assassinated while 
President. Lincoln died 
one month and eleven 
days after his second 
term opened ; Garfield 
served but six months 
and fifteen days in all ; 
and McKinley died six 
months and ten days 
after his second inaugu- 
ration. Johnson served 
out Lincoln's second 
term ; Arthur served out 
Garfield's term; and 




James A. Garfield 



Roosevelt served out McKinley's second term and was 
then elected to succeed himself. The only Democratic 
President since the beginning of the Civil War was Cleve- 
land, 1885-1889 and 1893-1897. Immediately after the 



592 Reconstruction, Development, Expansion 

close of the war the chief political issue was the recon- 
struction of the seceded states. Since then the two main 
political issues between the Democratic and Republican 
parties have been the money question and the tariff ques- 
tion, although, of course, there have been minor issues. 




Copyright by C. M. Bell 



Inauguration of a President 



Chief Justice Fuller administering the oath of office to President-elect McKinley, 
March 4, 1897 



The many industrial and social questions which have come 
to the front have given rise to a number of other political 
parties. Among these are the Populist or People's party, 
the Prohibition party, and the Socialist party, which at 
times have played more or less conspicuous parts in 
national affairs. 



Financial and Industrial Legislation 593 

FINANCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL LEGISLATION 

700. Government Finances during the Civil War. — At 
the beginning of the Civil War the finances of the na- 
tional government were in a bad condition, the treasury 
being empty. The amount of money required for carrying 
on the war was much larger than the government had ever 
needed before. Toward the end of the war the expenses 
of the army and navy amounted to fully three million 
dollars per day. Much of this money was secured by high 
taxes, but as already stated a large amount of it had to be 
secured by selling bonds and by issuing paper money and 
interest-bearing notes. At the end of the war the interest- 
bearing debt of the nation was more than two and a half 
billion dollars. Since then it has been reduced to less 
than one billion dollars. 

701. National Bank System. — One result of the sale of 
bonds was the creation of the national bank system. This 
system is entirely different from the United States Bank 
which Jackson destroyed. It was originated for the purpose 
of creating a market for the sale of United States bonds, in 
order that money might be secured to carry on the war. 
The law which established this system provided that not 
fewer than four persons, with a capital of not less than one 
hundred thousand dollars, might establish a national bank. 
They were required to invest a sum amounting to at least 
one third of their capital in United States bonds, and the 
government would then give them bank notes, not exceed- 
ing in value ninety per cent of the par value of these bonds. 
A tax levied by Congress on the notes of state banks 
caused most of these banks to become national banks, 
and thus the national government was able to sell large 
quantities of bonds. The national bank system at first 

2Q 



594 Reconstruction, Development, Expansion 



established has been slightly modified and is to-day an 
important feature of our financial system. 

702. Resumption of Specie Payments. — The government 
did not promise to redeem with gold and silver any of 
the five hundred million dollars of paper money it had 
issued during the war, and all of it therefore continued 

in circulation. This 




paper money, to- 
gether with the more 
than five hundred 
and fifty million dol- 
lars' worth of United 
States interest-bear- 
ing notes which had 
been issued, had 
caused nearly all 
the gold and silver 
money to disappear 
from circulation. In 
order to bring the 
finances of the coun- 
try back to a gold 
and silver basis, Con- 
gress passed a law 
in 1864 which pro- 
vided that the Treasury Department should pay out gold 
and silver in return for paper money, all the paper money 
thus secured to be destroyed. Within four years the 
amount of paper money had been reduced from nearly five 
hundred million dollars to three hundred and fifty-six mil- 
lion. The destruction of so much paper money caused a 
scarcity of money, and in response to the demand of the 
people, specie payment was discontinued in 1868. In 




Rutherford B. Hayes 



Financial and Industrial Legislation 595 



1879, during President Hayes's administration, it was re- 
sumed, and the finances of the country have ever since 
been on a hard money basis. 

703. Gold and Silver Coinage Standards. — Standard 
money is money that must be accepted in payment for all 
debts, and material out of which this money is made must 
be coined by the United States Mints practically free of 
charge for any one 
who takes the ma- 
terial to the mints 
and complies with 
the regulations. Un- 
til 1873 both gold 
and silver were 
standard moneys in 
the United States — 
that is, they were 
legal tender for 
the payment of all 
debts, and any one 
possessing either 
could have it coined 
into money. In 
1873 the coinage of Benjamin Harrison 

silver was partially discontinued, and in 1876 its coinage and 
use as a standard money were abolished. In 1878 it was 
again made a legal tender, but the amount the government 
could coin during each year was limited. The law providing 
for this is called the Bland Silver Bill During Harrison's 
administration, in 1890, Congress passed what is known as 
the Sherman Act. This law directed the Secretary of the 
Treasury to buy about fifteen million dollars' worth of sil- 
ver each year. After 1891 it was provided that the silver 




596 Reconstruction, Development, Expansion 



bought need not be coined, but silver certificates for four 
million five hundred thousand ounces of silver must be is- 
sued each month, 
and these redeemed 
in gold and silver. 
In order to protect 
the gold reserve in 
the United States 
Treasury, the 
Sherman Act was 
repealed in Cleve- 
land's second ad- 
ministration. In 
the spring of 1900 
Congress passed a 
law which declared, 
in substance, that 
the gold standard 
would be main- 
tained in the 
United States. 
Since that time the 
United States has 
been on a gold 
William Mckinley standard basis. 

704. Tariff Legislation. — For about fifteen years be- 
fore the Civil War, tariff duties in the United States 
were lower than they had been since 18 16. During the 
war high tariff rates were levied in order to raise money 
to meet the expenses of the war and in order to protect 
manufacturing interests which were being heavily taxed. 
Since the war the tariff has remained strongly protective in 
nature. The Wilson Bill, passed during Cleveland's second 



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Financial and Industrial Legislation 597 

administration, modified the tariff in many respects, but it 
retained a large number of protective features. During 




McKinley's Home at Canton, Ohio 

McKinley's administration a tariff with full protective 
features was restored, and is still in operation. 

705. Development of Corporations and Trusts. — A cor- 
poration is an organization recognized by law, and em- 
powered to transact a certain kind of business, as though 
it were one person. The wonderful industrial progress of 
the United States has made it possible for men to amass 
large fortunes. These fortunes, singly or in combinations, 
have been used for the purpose of building long railroad 
lines, developing large mining interests, and carrying on 
other great enterprises. Their owners have at times taken 
advantage of the great power which they possess to crush 
out smaller enterprises having less financial backing. A 
vast corporation often takes the place of many individual 
business concerns. For example, the Western Union Tele- 



598 Reconstruction, Development, Expansion 

graph Company was organized in 1886 out of forty small 
telegraph companies. Many lines of railroads have been 
combined into a few great systems. The Standard Oil Com- 
pany and the United States Steel Corporation have taken 
the place of any number of smaller oil and steel companies. 
When great corporations were first organized, they were 
brought into sharp competition with other corporations 
engaged in the same lines of business. The corporations 
soon learned, however, that it was to their advantage to 
form combinations, thus avoiding competition with one 
another. Vast combinations or trusts have now been 
formed in almost every line of business. 

706. Labor Organizations. — In order to protect them- 
selves against combinations of capital, and to better their 
condition, many of the laboring people of the country 
have combined at different times and under various names. 
Many of these labor organizations have united and formed 
state federations, and the state federations are represented 
in what is known as the American Federation of Labor, 
which exercises general control over the organizations com- 
posing it. By their combined efforts, the labor organiza- 
tions have shortened the hours of labor, raised wages, and 
accomplished many other things which, taken together 
with the natural advantages and great industrial develop- 
ment of the United States, have raised the condition of the 
American laborer above that of any other nation. 

707. Proper Regulation of Industrial Combinations. — 
This constitutes one of the greatest problems now before 
the American people for solution. These combinations are 
regarded by many thoughtful and intelligent, people as 
necessary to our industrial development. Further, they 
are believed by many economists to be beneficial if wisely 
regulated so as not to infringe upon, or interfere with, the 



Financial and Industrial Legislation 599 

great principles of personal freedom and personal initiative 
in business which have made possible the great growth of 
the American nation. Freedom in business and industry, 
and fair, open, and honest industrial competition, are the 
principles that have brought prosperity, happiness, and 
comfort into millions of American homes, and they are 
the principles that make it possible for the very poorest 
boys and girls to achieve the greatest success. Many of 
the ablest men and women in the nation believe that it 
would be very unfortunate for the welfare of the American 
people if they should ever permit industrial combinations 
of any kind seriously to interfere with the free operation 
of these great principles of American growth. Already 
laws having for their object the control of various indus- 
trial combinations have been passed by both the national 
and the state legislatures. Among such laws is that known 
as the Interstate Commerce Act passed by Congress in 
1887. This law provides for the supervision of railroads 
by a national commission, whose duty it is to prevent unfair 
discrimination between shippers, and to prevent the organi- 
zation of combinations which have for their purpose the 
destroying of competition and the raising of prices. Among 
the laws passed in the interest of labor are the Contract 
Labor Law, which prohibits any person in the United States 
from importing foreign laborers under contract ; laws re- 
stricting Chinese immigration ; and laws making eight hours 
a full day's labor in certain kinds of government employ- 
ment. In 1903 Congress created the new executive depart- 
ment of Commerce and Labor. Many states have passed 
laws regulating railway rates, and restricting the powers 
and denning the duties of corporations, trusts, and various 
other combinations. 



600 Reconstruction, Development, Expansion 

FOREIGN RELATIONS 

708. Purchase of Alaska. — Russia sold Alaska to the 
United States in 1867 for about seven million dollars. 
This territory contains about five hundred thousand square 
miles. At the time it was purchased it was thought to be 
valuable only for its furs, fisheries, and lumber ; but large 
mineral deposits have since been discovered there. 

709. The Trent Affair; Other Questions in Dispute with 
Great Britain. — During the Civil War the government of 
the Confederacy sent two commissioners to Europe for the 
purpose of inducing the leading nations of Europe to recog- 
nize the independence of the Confederacy. These commis- 
sioners embarked on the British vessel Trent. A war vessel 
of the United States stopped the Trent and seized the com- 
missioners. This was a violation of international law, and 
the government of the United States released the commis- 
sioners and disavowed the act of the American commander. 
Great Britain, however, sent troops to Canada and acted 
very much as though she would like to make trouble for 
the United States in order to assist the Confederacy. This 
created a rather strong feeling against Great Britain in the 
North, and this feeling continued to exist after the war. 
When the war ended, there were a number of disputes be- 
tween Great Britain and the United States that called for 
settlement, but the American government was not inclined 
to settle any of them until England would agree to con- 
sider the question of paying for the damage done to 
American merchant vessels by the Confederate commerce 
destroyers that had been fitted out in English ports. 

710. Treaty of Washington ; ' ' Alabama Claims ' ' Case. — 
In 1 87 1 commissioners from both nations met in Washington 
and made a treaty. This treaty is known as the Treaty of 



Foreign Relations 60 1 

Washington. It provided for the settlement by arbitration 
of the questions in dispute between the two nations. These 
questions were : The disputed boundary line between British 
Columbia and the territory of Washington, the rights of 
American fishermen in Canadian waters, and the claim 
of the United States for damages for the destruction of 
American commerce during the Civil War by vessels fitted 
out in British ports. The last-mentioned item is known as 
the "Alabama Claims," and was settled by the board of ar- 
bitration, which awarded fifteen million five hundred thou- 
sand dollars' damages to the United States. This treaty 
is important, because it is the first notable example of the 
voluntary arbitration by two great nations of questions in 
dispute. 

711. The French in Mexico. — During the Civil War a 
French army had been sent into Mexico, and a French 
Empire had been established with Maximilian, an Austrian 
Archduke, as Emperor. Soon after the close of the war 
about fifty thousand Union veterans under General Sheri- 
dan were stationed along the boundary between Mexico 
and Texas, and the Secretary of State intimated to the 
French government that the United States was now in a 
position to enforce the principles of the Monroe Doctrine. 
The French soldiers were at once removed ; Maximilian 
was executed, and Mexico again became a republic. 

712. Venezuelan Arbitration, 1895. — Another important 
application of the Monroe Doctrine occurred in 1895. In 
that year Great Britain and Venezuela could not agree upon 
the boundary between their territory in South America. 
Venezuela appealed to the United States, and the United 
States asked Great Britain to submit the question to arbitra- 
tion in accordance with the Monroe Doctrine. Great Britain 
claimed that the world had outgrown that doctrine. On 



602 Reconstruction, Development, Expansion 



receiving a note from the British government taking this 
position, Cleveland, with the authority of Congress, ap- 
pointed a commission to determine the boundary in dispute. 

In a message to Con- 
gress he stated that 
when the boundary 
line should have been 
determined by the com- 
mission, the United 
States would feel 
obliged to maintain it. 
England then consented 
to have the matter sub- 
mitted to arbitration. 
The firm stand of Cleve- 
land served as a notice 
to the world that the 
United States would 
strictly enforce the 
Monroe Doctrine. 

713. Second Venezuelan Arbitration. — Still another ap- 
plication of the Monroe Doctrine occurred in 1902. At 
that time Germany, England, and other nations wished to 
collect some debts which Venezuela owed their citizens. 
In order to compel the payment of these debts, England 
and Germany blockaded some of the ports of Venezuela. 
Through the influence of the government of the United 
States all the claims were adjusted by arbitration, and several 
questions in dispute were referred to the Hague Tribunal 
(see Article 714). 

714. Growth of Arbitration. — The principle of arbitra- 
tion at various times has been employed in the settling of 
domestic difficulties in the United States. This method 




Grover Cleveland 



Foreign Relations 



603 



of adjusting disputes has proved particularly effective in 
the settlement of great strikes, which have threatened the 
various industries of the nation, and even in some cases the 
welfare of the whole na- 
tion. An instance of this 
latter kind may be found 
in the great coal strike of 
1 902- 1 903 in the Pennsyl- 
vania coal fields, which was 
settled by arbitration after 
causing great injury to in- 
dustries and much suffer- 
ing among many of the 
people. As has been stated, 
the settlement of disputes 
between Great Britain and 
the United States by a 
board consisting of arbitra- 
tors appointed by other na- 
tions was the first notable 
application of arbitration 
to international affairs. It 
marked a distinct advance in the settlement of interna- 
tional questions, and has since been recognized as the 
best way in which to deal with many international difficul- 
ties. In 1899 another important advance was made. In 
that year, at the suggestion of the Czar of Russia, dele- 
gates from twenty-six nations met at The Hague in Hol- 
land for the purpose of providing for a permanent Court 
of Arbitration for the settlement of difficulties between 
nations without their going to war. The work of this con- 
ference met with the heartiest approval of the various 
nations of the world, and as a result the Hague Tribunal of 




Theodore Roosevelt 



604 Reconstruction, Development, Expansion 



Peace has been established. It is the object of this tribu- 
nal to settle justly and fairly all such questions arising 
between nations as may be submitted to it, and thus to pro- 
mote the peace and welfare of the world. The United 
States has been among the foremost in urging the princi- 
ples of arbitration. 

715. Causes of the Spanish-American War. — The remote 
cause of this war was the Spanish misgovernment of her 
West Indian possessions, which caused continual rebellion 
among the inhabitants and endangered American property 
interests there. Moreover, the American people felt a 

great deal of sympathy for the 
people who were struggling for 
liberty and trying to establish a 
republican form of government, 
and against whom a cruel and 
bloody warfare was being 
waged. The declaration of war 
was hastened by the destruction 
of the American battle ship 
Maine, in the harbor of Ha- 
vana, with the loss of more 
than two hundred and fifty 
men. It has not yet been 
proved, but it was generally 
believed that the destruction of the vessel was caused by 
the Spaniards. At any rate, it served to arouse the people 
of the United States and hastened the war for the inde- 
pendence of Cuba. 

716. Campaigns and American Victories. — The American 
navy won victory for the United States in this war. Two 
naval battles were fought, one off the southern coast of 
Cuba, and one in the Philippine Islands vhich belonged to 




Admiral George Dewey 

The victor in the battle of Manila 
Bay, 1898 



Foreign Relations 



605 



Spain, and where a part of the Spanish navy was stationed. 
In these two battles the Spanish navy was practically de- 
stroyed, without the loss to the American forces of a single 
ship, and with the loss of but one man. With her navy de- 
stroyed, Spain could not 
hope to make any effect- 
ive resistance on the 
land, either in the Phil- 
ippines or in the West 
Indies. The chief land 
campaign of the war had 
for its object the capture 
of Santiago. Two vigor- 
ous battles were fought 
at El Caney and San 
Juan before the city was 
captured by the Ameri- 
cans. Another success- 
ful campaign was begun 
at Porto Rico, but was 
soon stopped by the 
declaration of peace. A 
third army was sent to the Philippines, where it aided in 
the capture of the chief city, Manila. 

717. Results of the War ; our New Possessions. — The 
war itself was comparatively insignificant, but its results 
are of great importance to the United States. As an 
immediate result, Cuba became independent of Spain, 
and the United States gained considerable territory, in the 
management of which she has entered upon some new 
policies. By the treaty of peace which ended the war 
the United States acquired the Philippine Islands, Guam, 
Porto Rico, and other Spanish West Indian Islands, giving 




San Juan Blockhouse, showing Marks 
of Shot 



606 Reconstruction, Development, Expansion 

Spain in return twenty million dollars. This war had shown 
the military value of the Hawaiian Islands, and they also 
were annexed to the United States in 1898. The annexa- 
tion of Hawaii had been proposed to the United States 
before, and would very likely have taken place in any 
event, but the war hastened it. The political effect of 
this war is far-reaching and may vitally affect the policy 
of the United States. If these possessions are treated as 
colonies, the United States may be compelled to mix in 
Asiatic and European affairs, thus to a certain extent 
abandoning the principle of neutrality established by Wash- 
ington, to which the United States has always strictly ad- 
hered. Previous to the acquisition of this territory all of 
the country acquired by the United States had been practi- 
cally unsettled, leaving for the American people the devel- 
opment of its resources and its preparation for becoming 
an integral part -of the Union. Most of the territory 
acquired from Spain during the recent war is thickly 
populated, and if it be held as colonial possessions, and 
the Constitution of the United States be not permitted to 
extend over it in full, a new principle will have entered 
into the American government. These questions belong 
to the future, and their solution will constitute some of the 
most important work of American statesmen. 

718. The Isthmian Canal. — As early as 1850 the building 
of a ship canal through part of Central America was dis- 
cussed, and a treaty made between England and America 
regarding the neutrality of such canal when built. From 
time to time treaties were made concerning a canal to be 
built through Central America, but nothing was accom- 
plished. The Spanish-American War emphasized the value 
of such a canal, and in 1901 the matter was taken up again. 
A second treatv was then made with England, guaranteeing 



Foreign Relations 



607 



the neutrality of the proposed canal, but giving the United 
States the right of ownership and defense. The construc- 
tion of the canal was then taken up by Congress. Two 
routes were proposed, one by way of Nicaragua and the 
other by way of Panama. A large sum was appropriated 
for the construction of the canal, and negotiations were at 




Panama Canal in Construction 



once begun with Colombia for a canal by way of Panama. 
Upon the rejection by Colombia of the treaty giving the 
United States the power to construct the canal, Panama 
revolted and established a republic which was at once 
recognized by the United States and the other leading 
nations. In 1904 the United States entered into a treaty 
with the government of Panama, and work on the canal 
was at once begun. Previous to this, however, a French 
company had done a great deal of work on this canal. 



608 Reconstruction, Development, Expansion 

INSTITUTIONAL LIFE 

719. Progress of United States since Civil War. — There 
has been remarkable progress in the United States since 
the Civil War along institutional lines. Especially is this 
true of the institutions of education and business. The 
industrial or business progress made during this time has 
never been equaled in any other period of the world's his- 
tory. The progress has affected the entire institutional 
life of the country, and has made the United States the 
wealthiest nation in the world. The rapid increase in 
wealth, together with a certain class of foreign immigra- 
tion, has introduced some new factors into the social life 
of the nation. There has been very little change in the 
institutions of government and religion, except slow and 
natural development along lines laid down in previous 
periods. 

720. Improvement in the Means of Transportation and 
Communication. — Since the Civil War there have been 
many important inventions and discoveries in means of 
transportation and communication ; but none of these 
caused anything like the revolution along industrial and 
other institutional lines that was caused by the introduc- 
tion of the railroad and telegraph. Before the railroad and 
telegraph came into use, animal power and wind power 
were the only forces used by man in transportation and 
communication, except the limited use of steam power 
in water navigation. As has already been seen, the use 
of electric power for purposes of communication, and of 
steam power for purposes of land transportation, brought 
about an astounding revolution in institutional life. The 
use of these two forces for such purposes will always 
make that period of history between 1-828 and i860 stand 



Institutional Life 609 

unique and unrivaled in the history of the world. No 
other inventions or discoveries in means of transportation 
and communication can ever affect human progress so pro- 
foundly as these have done, because the railroad and tele- 
graph have too nearly overcome the element of time in 
carrying goods, passengers, and messages. Other inven- 
tions and discoveries, however, will make transportation 
and communication cheaper and more convenient. Among 
those of this kind which have come into use since i860 are 
the cable and electric railways, the bicycle, the automobile, 
and the telephone. The telephone and street railways have 
become very important factors in the business and social 
life of the nation. But the most important development 
in means of transportation and communication made during 
this period has been the growth of steam railroads. In 
i860 there were only about thirty thousand miles of these 
railroads in the United States, while in 1905 there were 
more than two hundred and ten thousand miles, and new 
lines are constantly in course of construction. In i860 
there were no railroads west of the Missouri River. The 
first line reaching to the Pacific coast was completed in 
1869. Four other transcontinental lines have been built 
since then, and all these, together with their branches, 
have penetrated almost every part of the West. It is a 
remarkable and important fact that the United States 
contains almost as many miles of railroad as do all the 
other nations together. These vast railway systems in the 
United States have had a more important effect on the 
institutional life of the nation than any other one factor. 
They have aided industrial growth by making it possible 
to develop the great natural resources of the country, es- 
pecially those of the interior part. They have also had a 
profound effect on the industrial development of the coun- 



610 Reconstruction, Development, Expansion 

try by creating an immense home market for the products 
of all parts of the nation. If the railroads did not exist, a 
large share of the products of many parts of the United 
States would never find a market. The improved means 
of transportation and communication have also exerted a 
great and beneficial influence on the nation socially by 
bringing the people into closer touch, doing away with 
sectionalism, and thus protecting the growth of a true 
national life. 

721. Other Inventions and Discoveries. — The period 
of Reconstruction, Development, and Expansion, like the 
period of Westward Expansion and Slavery, is justly 
noted for its numerous useful and important inventions 
and discoveries. More inventions have been made during 
this period than in any other period of the world's history. 
This is true of each kind of business and pleasure in which 
tools, implements, machinery, or manufactured goods of 
any kind are used. Many discoveries have also been made 
in the sciences since i860, and they are of fully as much 
importance to mankind as are those made along mechani- 
cal lines. It would require more than fifty pages on which 
to name the more important inventions and discoveries 
which have been made during the last forty-five years. 
During this period, as was true of the period just before 
the Civil War, the people of the United States have led 
the world in the matter of mechanical inventions. Some 
of the inventions for the practical use of electric power 
have been among the most valuable made. The practical 
application of electricity to the telephone, to wireless teleg- 
raphy, and to the electric railway has already been noted. 
The electric lamp is another distinguished example of its 
practical use. Among the rapidly increasing uses to which 
electricity is being put, none promises to be of more value 



Institutional Life 6 1 1 

to mankind than its use in medical science, as, for example, 
the Roentgen or X-Ray. The use of electric power for 
practical purposes has only just begun, and while many 
valuable inventions and discoveries are being made, and 
will continue to be made in almost every field of work, 
everything indicates that the greatest and most valuable 
mechanical inventions that will be made in the near future 
will be in the domain of electricity. 

722. Development of Mineral Resources, and of Agricul- 
ture and Manufacturing. — One of the first effects of the 
invention of new machinery, and of the increased produc- 
tion of iron, copper, gold, and silver goods of all kinds, is 
to create an increased demand for the minerals out of which 
this machinery and these goods are made. Between i860 
and 1905 the production in the United States of machin- 
ery, and of iron, copper, gold, and silver goods, increased 
more than tenfold. This remarkable growth created an 
immense demand for iron, copper, gold, silver, and other 
ores, which in turn caused the rapid and extensive de- 
velopment of the mineral resources of the nation. Another 
important result of the invention and production of useful 
machinery is to increase the production of manufactured 
goods and agricultural products. Since i860 this has 
been especially true in the United States. Many kinds of 
goods are now manufactured by machinery which were 
formerly made by hand, and many kinds of goods which 
were formerly made slowly with machinery are now manu- 
factured rapidly and in large quantities by new and im- 
proved machinery. The new farming machinery invented 
has had a similar effect on agriculture. The invention 
of the reaper, the threshing machine, and other improved 
farming machinery during the period of Westward Expan- 
sion and Slavery reduced the amount of hard labor on 



6 1 2 Reconstruction, Development, Expansion 

the farm, and made farming more pleasant and more prof- 
itable. This is also true of the new and improved farming 
machinery invented since i860. This new machinery, to- 
gether with the opening by the railroads of almost all the 
rich land in the nation, has caused a wonderful increase in 
the production of agricultural products. There are now at 
the beginning of 1905 more than six million farms in the 
United States. The products raised on these six million 
farms in 1904 were worth about four billion dollars, and 
the value of these farms was more than fifteen billion dol- 
lars. Thus the value of farms and farm products was 
more than five times as great in 1905 as in i860. This 
shows that the growth of agriculture during the last forty- 
five years has been much greater in the United States than 
the growth of population. At this point this question will 
naturally arise : If farm products have increased so much 
faster than population, what becomes of all these farm 
products ? While a larger quantity is exported now than 
in i860, the large surplus is consumed mostly by American 
manufactures. So far as value is concerned, more than 
half of all the agricultural products of the United States is 
used by American manufactories in the manufacture of 
goods. This is a striking example of how the farming 
industry of the nation has become closely connected with 
the manufacturing industry. From this it becomes plain 
that if the manufacturing industry is injured, then the 
farming industry is injured; and if the farming industry 
is injured, then the manufacturing industry is injured. 
When both of these great industries are prosperous, the 
entire nation consumes more mineral and manufactured 
and farm products than under any other condition, all 
lines of industry are prosperous, and times are said to be 
good. This large consumption of the raw products of the 



Institutional Life 6 1 3 

farm by the manufactories would indicate that the 
manufacturing industry must have been prosperous during 
this period. This was true to a notable degree. The total 
value in 1904 of all the manufactured products in the United 
States was about fourteen billion dollars, nearly seven times 
as much as in i860. Thus it will be seen that the growth 
of manufactories has gone hand in hand with the growth 
of agriculture. The growth of each has been more rapid 
during the last five years than during any other period of 
the same length in the history of this or any other nation. 
The indications are that this growth will continue, and 
that the United States will continue to lead the nations of 
the world in the amount and value of her manufactured 
and farm products. 

723. Increase in Commerce, Foreign and Domestic. — 
During the period since i860, as was true during the 
period of Westward Expansion and Slavery, the great 
growth in the farming and manufacturing industries led 
naturally to a rapid growth in commerce, cities, and general 
population. The foreign commerce of the United States 
since 1897 has averaged more than two billion dollars per 
year, the exports being larger than the imports, thus leav- 
ing the balance of trade with foreign nations in favor of the 
United States. While this foreign commerce is larger than 
that of any other nation, and while it is of very great im- 
portance to the prosperity of the country, the home or 
domestic commerce is much larger and is of much greater 
importance. The home commerce of the United States 
is several times larger than the home commerce of any 
other nation, and larger than the total foreign commerce 
of all the other nations. This is due to the large amount 
of farm products used by American manufactories, and to 
the excessively large amount of manufactured and farm 



6 14 Reconstruction, Development, Expansion 

products which the great prosperity of the American 
people causes them to use. 

724. Growth of Cities. — The great growth of manufac- 
tories and of domestic and foreign commerce, which has 
taken place during the forty-five years since i860, has 
caused a rapid growth in population and cities. During 
this time the population has increased from about thirty-one 
millions to more than eighty millions, not including Alaska 
nor any of the territory secured from Spain as a result of 
the Spanish- American War. In i860 there were about five 
million people living in the towns and cities of the United 
States, while in 1905 this number had increased to more 
than twenty-five millions. It will be seen from this that in 
i860 about one person out of every six lived in the cities, 
while in 1905 one out of every three lived in the cities. 
The growth of cities, therefore, has been extremely rapid. 
New York, with its population of about three and one half 
millions, is the second largest city in the world; and Chicago, 
with a population of nearly two millions, is the fifth largest 
city in the world. Philadelphia has a population of about 
one and one third millions. There are three other cities in the 
United States with populations of more than five hundred 
thousand, and nine others with populations of from three 
to five hundred thousand. In i860 New York was the only 
city in the United States with a population of more than 
five hundred thousand, and it then had a population of less 
than eight hundred thousand. This unusual tendency to 
crowd to the cities is thought by many people to be bad 
for the best welfare of the United States. The real basis 
of the nation's wealth and growth must continue to depend 
largely on the prosperity of its farms. Farm life in the 
United States is becoming more and more pleasant and 
independent, and it is hoped that many of the American 



Institutional Life 



615 




A Cotton Factory in Alabama 



boys and girls will remain on the farms and make farming 
the most pleasant and independent of American industries. 
725. The New South. — During the period since the 
Civil War the South has had her full share in the great 
industrial growth of the nation. Never before since the 
American Rev- 
olution did she 
have her share 
in the prosper- 
ity of the coun- 
try as a whole. 
The cause of 
this change was 
the destruction 
of slavery. Be- 
fore the Civil 

War slavery had been the corner stone of southern society. 
With the emancipation of the slaves this society passed 
away, and on its ruins rose a new South, having free labor 
for its foundation. It was soon to be seen that the lack 
of free labor was what had caused the South to fall behind 
the rest of the nation in industrial prosperity. At the 
close of the war the southern people began with a will 
to rearrange their industrial conditions. They have suc- 
ceeded splendidly, and are now convinced that the aboli- 
tion of slavery was the best thing that could have happened. 
Since i860 the South has become covered with a network 
of excellent railroads. Her mineral resources, which are 
second to none in the world, have been made use of and 
are being rapidly developed. Manufactories are springing 
into existence and many of them already rival those of 
the North ; and for the first time in her history, her cities 
are having a rapid growth in population. Instead of the 



616 Reconstruction, Development, Expansion 



abolition of slavery injuring the production of cotton, her 
annual crop of that staple is now almost three times as large 
as the largest crop produced by slave labor. Much of this 
cotton, instead of being sent to the North and to foreign 
nations, is now being used in her own manufactories. The 
total population of those states which were slave states in 
i860 has more than doubled since the Civil War. In 1900 
their combined population was more than twenty-six 
and one half millions, or about five millions less than the 

total population 
of the United 
States at the 
beginning of 
the war. The 
total population 
of those states 
which were free 
states at the be- 
ginning of the 
war has also a 
little more than 
doubled since 
that time, thus 
their relative 
growth being about the same as that of the southern states. 
This is one of the strongest proofs that the prosperity of 
the South is at last keeping pace with that of the rest of 
the nation. 

726. The Development of the West. — The rapid settle- 
ment and growth of the country lying west of Arkansas, 
Missouri, Iowa, and Minnesota since i860 have never been 
surpassed in the pioneer period of any other part of the 
United States. There were no railroads in this vast terri- 




City Hall, San Francisco 



Institutional Life 



617 




Shipbuilding on the Pacific Coast 



tory in i860. In 1905 five lines extended all the way 
across it to the Pacific coast, and these lines, together with 
their branches, afforded ample means of transportation to 
all the people in the settled portions. These railroads 
have been the most important factors in the very rapid 
development of 
the West. Cali- 
fornia and Ore- 
gon were the 
only states in all 
that vast terri- 
tory at the be- 
ginning of the 
Civil War. At 
that time the 
total population 
of these two 
states, and of all the rest of the western country, was 
only a few hundred thousand. In 1905 this same west- 
ern country contained thirteen states and four territories, 
and had a combined population of about nine millions. 
It thus contained the same number of states and three 
times as large a population as did the entire United 
States at the close of the American Revolution. This 
western country now produces nearly all the gold and 
silver mined in the United States except that obtained in 
Alaska, and a large proportion of the fruit, wheat, corn, 
cattle, and sheep. San Francisco, with a population of 
more than four hundred thousand in 1905, is the largest 
city west of the Mississippi, and the ninth largest city in 
the nation. There has been an important growth of manu- 
factories on the Pacific coast, as is indicated by the fact 
that a number of the largest battle ships in the United 



6 1 8 Reconstruction, Development, Expansion 

States navy have been built in the shipyards of San 
Francisco, and several in the shipyards of Puget Sound. 
The growth of the great West in population and wealth 
has only just begun. The completion of the Panama 
Canal, which happily at last seems assured, and the increas- 
ing commerce of the nation with the Orient are factors 
evidently destined to cause the rapid growth and develop- 
ment of the Pacific coast states. 

727. Social Conditions. — There have been some impor- 
tant changes in social conditions since the Civil War, some 
for the better, some for the worse. The more impor- 
tant factors that have tended to change and modify the 
social conditions of the nation during this period are 
the improvement in means of transportation and communi- 
cation ; the negro question ; the immense foreign immigra- 
tion ; and the great industrial advance which has resulted 
in the creation of large private fortunes. The improve- 
ment in means of transportation and communication has 
done more than any other one thing to break down local- 
isms in manners and customs, and thus to unify the social 
life of the nation. The coming to the United States in 
recent years of so many emigrants from Europe is having 
a rather undesirable effect on social conditions, because 
these emigrants congregate in large cities, and do not 
readily assimilate American customs and ideals. The 
negro question, which was created by the emancipation and 
enfranchisement of the negroes, more vitally concerns the 
South, although it affects the entire nation. The solution 
of this question rests largely with the people of the South, 
and in this work they deserve the sympathy and coopera- 
tion of every citizen of the nation. Industrial education 
such as is being carried on in a number of southern insti- 
tutions with gratifying results, promises to be the most im- 



Institutional Life 



619 



portant factor in the solution of this problem. The great 
industrial development of the nation has tended, on the 
whole, to advance social conditions, because it has enabled 
the great mass of the people to have better homes, better 
clothes, better food, and more luxuries, and to enjoy more 
fully the pleasures of social life. On the other hand, the 




Main Waiting Room, Immigration Building, Nfav York City 



tendency of large private fortunes is to create class dis- 
tinction based on wealth. While there are some undesir- 
able tendencies and conditions in the social life of the 
nation, the great advance along industrial lines has caused, 
and is causing, steady improvement. 

728. General Progress in Education. — In no respect 
has the advance of the United States since the Civil War 
been more marked than in the matter of education. Splen- 



620 Reconstruction, Development, Expansion 



did advance along educational lines has been made in 
all parts of the United States. It is seen in the present; 
condition of the public school system and in numerous 
institutions of higher education; in the number and quality 

of, newspapers 
and magazines ; 
in institutes, con- 
ventions, and 
clubs of vari- 
ous kinds, which 
have for their 
object mutual 
improvement; 
and in the in- 
creased number 
of museums, li- 
braries, and art 
galleries. Noth- 
ing holds a 
brighter promise 
for the future of 
the nation than 
the increasing 
determination of 
the American 
people to pro- 
vide excellent free education for every American boy and 
girl. The future of the republic is safe only so long as the 
masses of the people are educated. It is the duty of every 
person to improve in every way possible the efficiency of the 
free public school system. One of the most vital things 
in connection with the improvement of schools is the ques- 
tion of teachers' salaries. Able men and women cannot be 




Horace Greeley 
One of the Greatest of American Newspaper Editors 



Institutional Life 621 

expected to devote their lives to teaching when they are paid 
smaller salaries than they can secure in other professions. 
Henry Ward Beecher made this point plain when he said : 
" There is no profession so exacting, none that breaks down 
so early, as that of faithful teaching ; and there is no economy 
so penurious, and no policy so intolerably mean, as that by 
which the custodians of public affairs screw down to the 
starvation point the small wages of men and women who 
are willing to devote their time and strength to teaching 
the young. In political movements, thousands of dollars can 
be squandered, but for' the teaching of the children of the 
people the cheapest teachers must be had, and their pay must 
be reduced whenever a reduction of expenses is necessary. 
If salaries ever should be ample, it is in the profession of 
school teaching. If there is one place where we ought to 
induce people to make their profession a life business, it is 
in the teaching of schools." 

729. The Free Elementary Public School System as it 
exists in the United States to-day has been built up and 
developed almost entirely since the Civil War. There were 
public schools before the Civil War, and they were doing an 
excellent work ; but there were not many free public schools 
before that time, and in efficiency and equipment these 
schools were far inferior to those of to-day. Just before 
i860 the people were beginning to demand free public 
schools as a right, and this soon resulted in placing the gen- 
eral management of the school system under the control of 
state school officials and in the levying of state school taxes. 
This was a new principle in education, for before such 
matters had been left almost entirely in the hands of city 
and county officials. At the present time the constitu- 
tions of nearly all the states make ample provision for the 
maintenance of the free public school system. Nearly all 



622 Reconstruction, Development, Expansion 

of the states west of the Alleghany Mountains set aside, 
under the direction of Congress at the time of their organ- 
ization, certain lands in each township for the support of 
public schools. In most cases these lands have been sold, 
and the money obtained from their sale constitutes a 
fund, the interest on which is used for school purposes. 
When additional money is needed, it is raised by direct 
local and state taxation. Although each state has its own 
school system, and there is a wide difference as to the 
length of school terms, qualifications and salaries of 
teachers, courses of study and similar matters, there are 
strong forces at work which tend to make the schools uni- 
form throughout the United States. Among these forces 
are state and national educational associations and the 
National Bureau of Education, the latter being under the 
direct control of the national government. 

730. The Advance in High School Education during this 
period has been as great and almost as important to the people 
and to the welfare of the nation as the improvement in the 
elementary schools. The whole public high school system 
has been developed largely within the last forty years, the 
number of high schools more than doubling between 1890 
and 1905. The high schools have been aptly termed the 
colleges of the people. They are becoming so numerous 
in many parts of the nation that a large proportion of 
children can attend them without leaving their own towns 
or school districts. The service of these schools in strength- 
ening the work of the elementary schools, and in giving the 
young of all classes an opportunity to secure a higher and 
broader education, can hardly be overestimated. Many of 
the public high schools in the United States to-day offer 
courses of study of as high grade as did Harvard and 
Yale in 1800, 



Institutional Life 623 

731. Colleges, Universities, and Special Schools. — The 
growth of state universities is one of the most notable 
features in the advance of education in the United States. 
Nearly every state has established an institution of this 
kind, supported by taxation, grants of land, and appropria- 
tions. Several great institutions of learning and numerous 
smaller colleges have been established throughout the 
United States by private individuals. Some of these pri- 
vate institutions, and nearly all the state universities, charge 
either a very small tuition or no tuition whatever. This 
gives almost every persevering and ambitious boy and girl 
a chance to secure a university education. Nothing is 
more notable in the recent advance of education than the 
rapidly increasing number of young people who are enter- 
ing the institutions of higher learning. The universities 
and colleges of the United States are having a marked and 
important effect on American character and ideals. The 
special schools are also having a profound effect on the 
industrial and professional life of the nation. Among 
these special schools are normal schools for the training of 
teachers ; medical schools for the training of physicians 
and surgeons ; law schools for the training of lawyers ; 
and many other schools for the training of men and 
women along professional and technical lines. More and 
more of these special schools are beginning work where 
the work of the university ends. They are training a 
larger number of experts for the various professions, and 
are thus rendering a very important service to the nation. 



624 Reconstruction, Development, Expansion 

QUESTIONS AND TOPICS 

RECONSTRUCTION OF THE CONFEDERATE STATES 

Questions for Class Recitations 

What was the condition of government in the seceded states at the 
close of the Civil War? Explain the question which this condition 
brought before the national government. Explain carefully each of 
the three views which were held regarding the relation of the seceded 
states to the national government. To what extent did Lincoln 
carry out his views, and what did he say his future policy in the whole 
matter would be ? Describe the death of Lincoln. How was his 
death received by the northern people ? Explain why the news of his 
death was received with sincere sorrow and regret by the entire civi- 
lized world. Why was his death an especially great loss to the South? 
Describe the early life of Lincoln. Discuss Lincoln's character and 
ability. 

Compare Lincoln's and Johnson's policies of reconstruction. Explain 
how and to what extent Johnson carried out his policy. Read and 
explain the Thirteenth Amendment. Explain the nature of the laws 
which the new state legislatures of the South passed for the control of 
the negroes. Why did the South pass these laws? What effect did 
the passage of these laws have on the northern people ? Explain care- 
fully how Congress, when it met in December, 1865, treated the recon- 
struction policy of Johnson. Explain the creation, power, and purpose 
of the Freedmen's Bureau. Explain the relation and feeling which ex- 
isted between Congress and Johnson over the Freedmen's Bureau and 
other matters of reconstruction. Read and explain the provisions of 
the Fourteenth Amendment. Explain carefully how this amendment 
was received in the South, and why it was so received. By this time 
what was the attitude of the people of the North on the question of 
reconstruction? Explain carefully the plan of reconstruction provided 
for in the Reconstruction Acts. How did the seceded states receive 
these acts? Read and explain the provisions of the Fifteenth Amend- 
ment. In what way was this amendment connected with the end of the 
political reconstruction of the South? 

Discuss the impeachment of President Johnson. Explain how the 
reconstruction policy of Congress enabled northern immigrants and 
the negroes to control for a time some of the state legislatures of the 



Questions and Topics 625 

South. How did the southern people feel about this? How would 
you have felt? Explain the relation between the race question and the 
reconstruction of the seceded states. Give your opinion as to the wis- 
dom of making the Fifteenth Amendment a part of the Constitution. 



POLITICAL METHODS AND POLITICAL PARTIES 
Questions for Class Recitations 

Explain the Australian ballot system. Explain carefully why the 
adoption of this system was a very important advance in political 
methods. Why is it very important for the people to take an active 
part in the selection of candidates for office? How may they do this? 
Describe the Spoils System, and explain carefully the bad results of this 
system. Explain carefully the object of the Civil Service Laws. Give 
the history of these laws in the United States and what they have 
accomplished. 

Discuss the leaders and principles of the Republican party since the 
Civil War. Discuss the leaders and principles of the Democratic party 
during this period. Discuss the leading issues between these two 
parties during this period. Discuss the conditions causing the forma- 
tion of other parties. 

FINANCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL LEGISLATION 

Questions for Class Recitations 

What was the condition of the finances of the national government 
at the beginning of the Civil War? Why did the government find it 
necessary to issue paper money? What is a national bond? Why did 
the government issue bonds during the war? Describe the national 
bank system. Why was it created? What action did Congress take 
against the state banks? What is specie payment? When the paper 
money was first issued, could it be exchanged for gold and silver money? 
What effect did this have on the use of gold and silver money in busi- 
ness affairs ? Explain what is meant by the resumption of specie pay- 
ment in 1864. What effect did this have on the amount of paper 
money in circulation? After 1864, when and for what reason was specie 
payment discontinued, and when was it resumed ? Explain fully what 
is meant by standard money. Up to 1873, what was standard money in 



626 Reconstruction, Development, Expansion 

the United States? Explain carefully how silver since 1873 has gradu- 
ally lost its position as a full standard money. 

Explain carefully the two main objects for which tariff duties are 
levied. Explain the two different views regarding the value of the pro- 
tective principle of the tariff. What is your opinion as to the merits 
of the protective system? Beginning with the Civil War, trace and 
explain the tariff legislation of the nation. 

What is a corporation? For what purposes are corporations organ- 
ized ? What is a trust ? Give some examples of vast corporations or 
trusts. In what ways are they beneficial, and in what ways are they 
harmful? What is a labor union? Why were labor unions organized? 
In what way have they benefited the working classes? What is meant 
by personal freedom and personal initiative in business and industry ? 
(This question should receive a most careful discussion by teacher and 
pupils.) Explain carefully how freedom in business and industry and 
fair, open, and honest industrial competition are principles that are 
absolutely necessary to the prosperity and happiness of the American 
people. Why is it necessary that the people see to it that great com- 
binations do not interfere with these principles? Explain in what ways 
certain combinations have done so or have threatened to do so already. 
Describe those laws which have already been passed for the purpose of 
restricting the powers and defining the duties of corporations, trusts, 
and other combinations. 

FOREIGN RELATIONS 
Questions for Class Recitations 

How did the United States secure Alaska? Describe the territory. 
Of what value is it to the United States? 

Explain how the seizure of the Confederate commissioners on the 
British vessel Trent created a strong feeling among the northern peo- 
ple against Great Britain. Why was the government of the United 
States not very anxious after the Civil War to settle the disputes be- 
tween this country and England? Discuss the provisions of the Treaty 
of Washington. Explain the final results secured by the provisions of 
this treaty. Why is this treaty of special importance? 

Describe the conditions in Mexico during the Civil War. Explain 
how the principles of the Monroe Doctrine applied to these conditions. 
Discuss the Venezuelan boundary dispute, and the application of the 



Questions and Topics 627 

Monroe Doctrine to this case. How did the Monroe Doctrine apply 
to the recent blockade of the ports of Venezuela? What effect did all 
this have on the Monroe Doctrine? 

(The teacher should consult magazines covering this period for ma- 
terial on this topic. The American Review of Reviews is especially 
valuable.) What is meant by arbitration? Describe the appointing 
of a board of arbitration. Give examples of its use in settling diffi- 
culties between laborers and their employers in the United States. 
Of what value is arbitration in cases of this kind? Give instances of 
the application of the principle of arbitration to international affairs 
affecting the United States. Discuss the establishment of the Hague 
Peace Tribunal. Give a history of this tribunal and its work. What 
can you say of its probable value to mankind? 

Discuss the causes of the Spanish-American War. Discuss the 
leading naval battles of this war, and discuss their effect. Describe 
the campaign for the capture of Santiago. (Each pupil should draw 
a map illustrating the important battles of this war.) Discuss the 
terms of the treaty of peace. Tell all you can about the character and 
conditions of the territory acquired by the United States through this 
treaty. How did the Spanish-American War affect the annexation of 
Hawaii? (Each pupil should draw a map showing the territorial ac- 
quisitions of the United States as a result of this war.) How is the 
territory acquired by this war governed at the present time? Compare 
the government of Hawaii with that of the Philippine Islands. Com- 
pare the conditions in the territory acquired from Spain with those 
in the territory previously acquired by the United States. Why was a 
different policy adopted in the government of this new territory from 
that followed in the organization and government of the other terri- 
tory of the United States ? In what way, if in any, do the results of the 
Spanish-American War tend to violate the principle of American neu- 
trality established by Washington? In what way may the Spanish- 
American War cause a new principle to enter into the government of 
the United States? 

Tell all you can of the history of the Panama Canal. (Each pupil 
should draw a map showing the two routes proposed.) Discuss the 
importance of this canal, and estimate its probable value to the United 
States and to the commerce of the world. 



628 Reconstruction, Development, Expansion 

INSTITUTIONAL LIFE 
Questions for Class Recitations 

Discuss the nature of the changes in the institutional life which 
have taken place since the Civil War. Explain very carefully why the 
period between 1828 and i860 will always stand unique and unrivaled 
in the history of the world as regards means of transportation and 
communication. (This last question deserves very careful considera- 
tion.) Describe the nature and value of those new inventions and 
discoveries which have affected means of transportation and commu- 
nication since i860. Describe the increase in railroad mileage since 
i860. Explain carefully how this wonderful growth of the railways of 
the nation have affected industrial and social conditions. Compare 
the number and nature of the inventions made since the Civil War 
with those made during the period before that war. How did the 
people of the United States continue to compare with the people of 
other nations in regard to the making of inventions and discoveries? 
Describe the inventions made for the practical application of electric 
power. What is your opinion concerning the future use of electricity 
for practical purposes? 

Explain carefully how the invention of new machinery and the 
increased production of iron, copper, gold, and silver goods have caused 
the rapid development of the mineral resources of the nation. In what 
way have the new inventions and the increased production of useful 
machinery caused an increased production of manufactured goods and 
agricultural products? (This question deserves very careful considera- 
tion.) Describe briefly the growth of agriculture during this period. 
Describe briefly the growth of manufactures during this period. What 
is your opinion regarding the future growth in the United States of the 
agricultural and manufacturing industries? Explain the relation be- 
tween the growth in the farming and manufacturing industries and 
the growth in commerce, cities, and population. Compare the foreign 
commerce of the United States with the foreign commerce of other 
nations. Discuss the domestic commerce of the United States, ex- 
plaining the causes of its growth, and comparing it with the domestic 
and foreign commerce of other nations. Compare the population of 
the United States in i860 with its population in 1905. What have 
been the causes of this rapid growth? Describe the growth of the 
cities during this period. Explain carefully what have been the causes 



Questions and Topics 629 

of this growth. Why is this unusual tendency to crowd to the cities 
thought to be against the best interests of the nation? 

Compare the growth of the South during this period with her 
growth during the period before the Civil War. What were the causes 
of this change ? How did the abolition of slavery affect the building 
of railways in the South ? How did it affect the growth of manufac- 
tories and the production of cotton ? How did it affect the growth of 
population? Compare the growth of the West during this period with 
the early settlement and growth of the other sections of the United 
States. Compare the population of this western country in i860 with 
its population in 1905. Explain carefully the growth of the West in 
means of transportation and communication, and in wealth and com- 
merce. What can you say as regards the probable future growth of 
the western country ? 

Explain carefully each of the more important factors that have 
brought about changes in the social conditions of the nation since the 
Civil War. Explain how improvement in means of transportation and 
communication affected social conditions during this period. What effect 
has the immigration of undesirable people from the nations of Europe 
had upon the social conditions of the nation? Explain the importance 
of the race question to the social conditions of the nation. How has the 
great industrial growth of the nation affected social conditions? What 
is your opinion concerning the continued improvement in social condi- 
tions? 

How does the growth of education in the United States since the 
Civil War compare with the industrial growth? What things give 
evidence of this educational growth? Explain carefully how this great 
educational advance indicates a bright future for the nation. In what 
vital way is the question of teachers' salaries related to the growth of 
education? Give a very careful discussion of the growth of the elemen- 
tary public school system. Give a very careful discussion of the growth 
of the public high school system. Give a very careful discussion of 
the growth of colleges, universities, and special schools. What is the 
especial value to the nation of these schools of higher and special 
education ? 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the relation of the Confederate states to the national gov- 
ernment at the end of the Civil War. Discuss the death, character, 



630 Reconstruction, Development, Expansion 

and ability of Lincoln. Discuss the reconstruction policy of Johnson. 
Discuss the reconstruction policy of Congress, including a careful dis- 
cussion of the results of this policy. Discuss the changes in political 
methods which took place during this period. Discuss the political 
parties of this period and their position on the leading political issues. 
Give a careful discussion of the nation's financial legislation. Begin- 
ning with i860, give a careful discussion of tariff legislation in the 
United States. Give a careful discussion of corporations, trusts, and 
other combinations. Discuss the Treaty of Washington. Discuss the 
application of the principles of the Monroe Doctrine during this period. 
Discuss the growth of arbitration in domestic and international affairs. 
Discuss the Spanish-American War and its territorial results. Discuss 
the ways in which the form of government adopted by Congress for the 
territory secured from Spain tends to introduce new principles into the 
government of the United States. How may the results of the Spanish- 
American War modify the principle of American neutrality in European 
affairs? Discuss the history and importance of the Isthmian Canal. 
Give a careful discussion of the industrial growth of the nation during 
the forty-five years between i860 and 1905. Discuss the growth of the 
West during this period. Discuss the changes in social conditions 
which have occurred since i860. Give a careful discussion of the 
growth of schools and education in the United States since i860. 

Subjects for Special Study and General Review 

(A careful study of the subjects which follow should constitute the 
review for the eighth-grade work in history and civics. The pupil 
should have ample time for the study of these subjects, and should 
be permitted free access to this book and to other available material 
when preparing these papers or written discussions.) Beginning with 
the Revolution, give a written discussion of the Growth of the United 
States in Territory and Population. Beginning with " Institutional 
Life in the Colonies, 11 give a written discussion of the Growth and 
Change in Industrial Conditions. Beginning with " Institutional Life 
in the Colonies, 11 give a written discussion of the Growth and Changes 
in Social Conditions. Beginning with " Institutional Life in the Colo- 
nies," give a written discussion of the Growth and Changes in Govern- 
ment. Beginning with " Institutional Life in the Colonies, 11 give a 
written discussion of the Growth and Changes in Religion. Beginning 



Questions and Topics 631 

with "Institutional Life in the Colonies, 11 give a written discussion of 
the Growth and Changes in Education. Beginning with the " Criti- 
cal Period, 11 give a written discussion of the Growth and Changes in 
Financial Conditions and Financial Affairs. Beginning with the " Critical 
Period," give a written discussion of the Tariff Policy of the United 
States. Give a written discussion of the Growth of Slavery in the 
United States. Give a written discussion of the American Civil War, 
including its causes and the reconstruction of the seceded states. Be- 
ginning with Washington^ first administration, give a written discus- 
sion of the Foreign Relations of the United States, including the period 
of European Interference, the War with Mexico, and the Spanish-Ameri- 
can War. Beginning with Washington^ first administration, give a 
written discussion of the Growth and Changes in Political Parties and 
Political Methods. 



APPENDIX 

HISTORY AND CIVICS IN THE LOWER 
GRADES 

This outline of work for the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth 
year grades has no direct connection with the other subject- 
matter of this history. This text-book on American history 
has been prepared on the supposition that the pupil, when 
he begins the seventh-year work, has made no previous 
study of history and civics. It is generally recognized, 
however, that it is most desirable to give history and civics 
a place in the lower grades. This outline has been pre- 
pared for the specific purpose of meeting this demand. It 
is hoped that the plan of work which follows will prove 
suggestive and valuable to those progressive teachers and 
schools that desire to give history and civics their proper 
places in the intermediate grades. The main object for 
doing this work in the lower grades is to reenforce the 
work along other lines ; to give the pupil some preparation 
for the formal study of these subjects in the higher grades ; 
and to give those pupils who must leave school before they 
reach the more advanced grammar grades some knowledge 
of American history. The plan as outlined below makes 
most of this work a part of the work on the other subjects. 
As arranged, the elementary work on history and civics 
constitutes much of the language work, and provides much 
excellent material for the pupil's general reading. This 
correlation economizes the time of the teacher and pupil, 
and tends to prevent an overcrowding of the course of 
study. 



ii Appendix 

THIRD-YEAR GRADE 

All the work here outlined for the third grade is to be 
presented orally by the teacher. After the teacher has 
presented the topic of the month in story form, different 
pupils should be required to stand and retell the story. 
Either before or after this oral retelling of the story by 
different members of the class, a pupil should be required 
to pass to the blackboard and write the story as the class 
reconstructs it. This constitutes the best possible work on 
language, and usually secures the active interest and co- 
operation of every pupil. Under the sympathetic guidance 
of the teacher, each pupil, by actual practice, is learning 
how to use capitals and the simpler marks of punctuation ; 
he is learning something about the use and selection of 
words, and about paragraphing and other principles of 
language construction. As the pupils reconstruct the 
story for the pupil at the board, they should be led by the 
teacher to discuss and to apply these simpler principles of 
constructive grammar, and to learn new ones as the com- 
plexity of their language requires their use. After the 
different pupils have retold the story orally, and after the 
class' has reconstructed it on the board as indicated above, 
each pupil should be required to reproduce it in the form 
of a composition, and nothing but his best work should be 
accepted by the teacher. From the standpoint of language, 
the work on one history story is of much more value to the 
pupil than would be a dozen lessons like those contained 
in the average language book. This work on the history 
stories, together with similar work on literature stories, 
and on original compositions on other subjects, should 
constitute nearly all the language work in the first six 
grades of the elementary schools, and a large part of that 
work in the seventh and eighth grades. 



History and Civics in the Lower Grades iii 

In presenting the history work of each month, the 
teacher should weave it into story form and make it just 
as interesting as possible. It should always be borne in 
mind, however, that the stories or talks of the teacher 
on each topic should be true to historical fact. The talks on 
the topics of the first and second months — Government in 
the Home and Government in the School — should impress 
on the pupil the necessity and object of government. It 
may be rather difficult to present these two topics in story 
form, but the work on civics should begin with the child's 
personal environment. In the fourth grade the work on 
civics deals with city, county, and district government, and 
in the fifth grade with state government. The work on 
civics in these three grades should give the pupil a general 
idea of local and state government, and prepare him for the 
more formal study of government in the seventh and eighth 
grades. The other topics of this grade can be presented 
easily in story form of the most interesting nature. The 
pupil will be deeply interested in the origin of Thanks- 
giving and the conditions under which the Pilgrims ate the 
first Thanksgiving dinner. The topic of the fourth month, 
the Story of Christmas, can be presented in story form 
along the same general lines. The boyhood of Washing- 
ton, Franklin, Lincoln, and Grant can be made most inter- 
esting to children in story form, and will introduce them to 
the most interesting period of our history. 

First Month Third Month 

Talks on Government in the Thanksgiving 

Home 

Second Month Fourth Month 

Talks on Government in the Christmas 

Schools 



iv Appendix 

Fifth Month Seventh Month 

Boyhood of Washington Boyhood of Lincoln 

Sixth Month Eighth Month 

Boyhood of Franklin Boyhood of Grant 

FOURTH-YEAR GRADE 

In studying the topic of the first month, the pupils will 
be very much interested in talking with their parents and 
others about the life and hardships of the early settlers 
of the neighborhood and county. They should be encour- 
aged to secure all the information possible in order that 
they may become fairly familiar with the early history of 
their county and city. The topics of the second month, 
Local Government, should receive careful consideration. 
The pupils should secure a good idea of the school govern- 
ment of the school district and city. They should learn 
how school districts are formed ; how school trustees and 
members of city boards of education are elected ; how 
teachers are elected ; the object for maintaining schools ; 
and why parents are so willing to be taxed for the support 
of the public school system. From this month's work the 
pupil should also learn about county and city government. 
He should learn how county and city officers are elected, 
and the general duties of the same. Some of the pupils 
will no doubt be acquainted with some of the county and 
city officials, and this personal element should be empha- 
sized as much as possible. It is not supposed, of course, 
that the pupils will secure a thorough knowledge of local 
government from this month's work, but they should se- 
cure a general idea of the same and should have created 
in them a desire to learn more about the government of 
the school district, county, and city. The history work 



History and Civics in the Lower Grades v 

of the other six months of this grade is to be presented as 
indicated by the suggestions on the third-grade work. 

First Month Fifth Month 

Early History of the Neighbor- Captain John Smith 

hood and County 

Second Month Sixth Month 

Local Government Miles Standish 

Third Month Seventh Month 

Columbus William Penn 

Fourth Month Eighth Month 

Sir Walter Raleigh Daniel Boone 

FIFTH-YEAR GRADE 

The history work for this grade should deal with English 
history and with the history of the state in which the pupil 
lives. An interesting book on each of these subjects 
should be selected. It may be difficult in some cases to 
find a suitable book for the work on state history, but 
there are a number of books on English history that 
have been prepared especially for intermediate grade work. 
The one selected should cover the subject judiciously and 
should be true to historical fact. These books should be 
made a part of the subject-matter of the regular reading 
course. The treatment of the subject-matter of the books 
selected should be in accordance with the suggestions on 
the work of the third grade, and should be made to con- 
stitute an important part of the pupil's language work. 
During one month of this grade the government of the 
state in which the pupil lives should receive careful con- 
sideration. From the time devoted to this subject the 



vi Appendix 

pupil should understand the object of state government 
and the reasons for dividing it into the legislative, execu- 
tive, and judicial departments. He should learn the official 
titles of the different state officers, how they are elected, 
and the general powers and duties of each. 

SIXTH-YEAR GRADE 

The history work of this grade should be of such a 
nature as to give the pupil valuable knowledge of the 
early history of the nation, and to create in him a desire 
to read history. This is deemed very important because 
many pupils never attend school after this grade. The 
work of the sixth year should also lay a good founda- 
tion for the formal study of history in the seventh and 
eighth years. Of all the books now in print, McMurry's 
" Pioneer History Stories " seem to be distinctly the best 
for securing these results. There are three volumes of 
these stories : " Pioneers on Land and Sea," " Pioneers 
of the Mississippi Valley," and " Pioneers of the Rocky 
Mountains and the West." While these three volumes 
are as interesting as a novel, they are true to historical 
fact, which is of great importance. It is recommended 
that these books be made a part of the subject-matter for 
the regular reading course, but that the topics be treated 
in accordance with the suggestions on the work of the 
third grade. These books make excellent subject-matter 
for the regular reading course, and this correlation tends 
to check the all too prevalent habit of crowding too much 
work into the elementary schools. If in addition to read- 
ing these " Pioneer History Stories " a more formal study of 
history be desired in this grade, some good primary text 
on the subject should be used. 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 

In Congress, July 4, /77 6 > 

The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States 
of America, 

When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one 
people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with 
another, and to assume among the Powers of the earth the separate 
and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature s God 
entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that 
thev should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created 
equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable 
Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happi- 
ness That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among 
Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, 
That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these 
ends it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to insti- 
tute 'new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and 
organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most Tikely 
to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence indeed, will dictate 
that Governments long established should not be changed for light 
and transient causes ; and accordingly all experience hath shown that 
mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to 
right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. 
But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably 
the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Des- 
potism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government 
and to provide new Guards for their future security. - Such has been 
the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity 
which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government 
The history of the present King of Great Britain is a hist ory of repeated 
injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment 
rf« absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be 
submitted to a candid world. 



viii Appendix 

He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and neces- 
sary for the public good. 

He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and 
pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent 
should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected 
to attend to them. 

He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large 
districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of 
Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and 
formidable to tyrants only. 

He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncom- 
fortable, and distant from the depository of their Public Records, for 
the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. 

He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing 
with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people. 

He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others 
to be elected; whereby the Legislative Powers, incapable of Annihila- 
tion, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State 
remaining in the mean time exposed to all the dangers of invasion from 
without, and convulsions within. 

He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States ; for 
that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; 
refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising 
the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands. 

He has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing his 
Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary Powers. 

He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure of 
their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. 

He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms 
of Officers to harass our People, and eat out their substance. 

He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without 
the Consent of our legislature. 

He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior 
to the Civil Power. 

He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign 
to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws ; giving his 
Assent to their acts of pretended legislation : 

For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us : 

For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from Punishment for any 
Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States: 

For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world : 

For imposing taxes on us without our Consent : 

For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury : 



Declaration of Independence ix 

, For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences : 

For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring 
Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging 
its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument 
for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies: 

For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws, 
and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments : 

For suspending our own Legislature, and declaring themselves in- 
vested with Power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 

He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Pro- 
tection and waging War against us. 

He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, and 
destroyed the lives of our people. 

He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to 
compleat the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun 
with circumstances of Cruelty & perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most 
barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation. 

He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high 
Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners 
of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands. 

He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeav- 
oured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian 
Savages, whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction 
of all ages, sexes and conditions. 

In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress 
in the most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered 
only by repeated injury. A Prince, whose character is thus marked by 
every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free 
People. 

Nor have We been wanting in attention to our Brittish brethren. We 
have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to 
extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them 
of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have 
appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured 
them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, 
which, would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. 
They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. 
We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our 
Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies 
in War, in Peace Friends. 

We, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America, 
in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of 
the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do> in the Name, and by 



Appendix 



Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and 
declare, That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free 
and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to 
the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and 
the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and 
that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, 
conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all 
other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. 
And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the 
Protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our 
Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor. 

JOHN HANCOCK. 

New Hampshire — Josiah Bartlett, Wm. Whipple, Matthew 
Thornton. 

Massachusetts Bay — Saml. Adams, John Adams, Robt. Treat 
Paine, Elbridge Gerry. 

Rhode Island — Step. Hopkins, William Ellery. 

Connecticut — Roger Sherman, Sam'el Huntington, Wm. Will- 
iams, Oliver Wolcott. 

New York — Wm. Floyd, Phil. Livingston, Frans. Lewis, Lewis 
Morris. 

New Jersey — Richd. Stockton, Jno. Witherspoon, Fras. Hop- 
kinson, John Hart, Abra. Clark. 

Pennsylvania — Robt. Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benja. Frank- 
lin, John Morton, Geo. Clymer, Jas. Smith, Geo. Taylor, James 
Wilson, Geo. Ross. 

Delaware — Cesar Rodney, Geo. Read, Tho. M'Kean. 

Maryland — Samuel Chase, Wm. Paca, Thos. Stone, Charles 
Carroll of Carrollton. 

Virginia — George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Th. Jefferson, 
Benja. Harrison, Thos. Nelson, jr., Francis Lightfoot Lee, 
Carter Braxton. 

North Carolina — Wm. Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn. 

South Carolina — Edward Rutledge, Thos. Heyward, Junr., 
Thomas Lynch, Junr., Arthur Middleton. 

Georgia — Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, Geo. Walton. x 

1 This arrangement of the names is made for convenience. The 
states are not mentioned in the original. 



CONSTITUTION 

OF THE 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA* 

We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect 
Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the 
common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Bless- 
ings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and estab- 
lish this Constitution for the United States of America. 

ARTICLE. I. 

Section. I. All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested 
in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and 
House of Representatives. 

Section 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed of 
Members chosen every second Year by the People of the several States, 
and the Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite 
for Electors of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature. 

No Person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to 
the Age of twenty five Years, and been seven Years a Citizen of the 
United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of 
that State in which he shall be chosen. 

Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the 
several States which may be included within this Union, according to 
their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the 
whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to Service for a 
Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all 
other Persons. The actual Enumeration shall be made within three 
Years after the first Meeting of the Congress of the United States, and 
within every subsequent Term of ten Years, in such Manner as they 
shall by Law direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed 
one for every thirty Thousand, but each State shall have at Least one 

* Reprinted from the text issued by the State Department. 



xii Appendix 

Representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State 
of New Hampshire shall be entitled to chuse three, Massachusetts 
eight, Rhode Island and providence Plantations one, Connecticut rive, 
New-York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, 
Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, 
and Georgia three. 

When vacancies happen in the Representation from any State, the 
Executive Authority thereof shall issue Writs of Election to fill such 
Vacancies. 

The House of Representatives shall chuse their Speaker and oth«:r 
Officers; and shall have the sole Power of Impeachment. 

Section. 3. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of 
two Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for 
six Years; and each Senator shall have one Vote. 

Immediately after they shall be assembled in Consequence of the 
first Election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three 
Classes. The Seats of the Senators of the first Class shall be vacated 
at the Expiration of the second Year, of the second Class at the Expira- 
tion of the fourth Year, and of the third Class at the Expiration of the 
sixth Year, so that one third may be chosen every second Year; and if 
Vacancies happen by Resignation, or otherwise, during the Recess of 
the Legislature of any State, the Executive thereof may make tempo- 
rary Appointments until the next Meeting of the Legislature, which 
shall then fill such Vacancies. 

No Person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the 
Age of thirty Years, and been nine Years a Citizen of the United States, 
and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State for 
which he shall be chosen. 

The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the 
Senate, but shall have no Vote, unless they be equally divided. 

The Senate shall chuse their other Officers, and also a President pro 
tempore, in the Absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exer- 
cise the Office of President of the United States. 

The Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Impeachments. 
When sitting for that Purpose, they shell be on Oath or Affirmation. 
When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall 
preside : And no Person shall be convicted without the Concurrence 
of two thirds of the Members present. 

Judgment in Cases of Impeachment shall not extend further than to 
removal from Office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any Office 
of honor, Trust or Profit under the United States : but the Party con- 
victed shall nevertheless be liable and subject to Indictment, Trial, 
Judgment and Punishment, according to Law. 

Section. 4. The Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections 



Constitution of the United States xiii 

for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by 
the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by Law 
make or alter such Regulations, except as to the Places of chusing 
Senators. 

The Congress shall assemble at least once in every Year, and such 
Meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall 
by Law appoint a different Day. 

Section. 5. Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections, Re- 
turns and Qualifications of its own Members, and a Majority of each 
shall constitute a Quorum to do Business; but a smaller Number may 
adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the Attend- 
ance of absent Members, in such Manner, and under such Penalties as 
each House may provide. 

Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceedings, punish its 
Members for disorderly Behaviour, and, with the Concurrence of two 
thirds, expel a member. 

Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings, and from time 
to time publish the same, excepting such Parts as may in their Judgment 
require Secrecy; and the Yeas and Nays of the Members of either 
House on any question shall, at the Desire of one fifth of those Present, 
be entered on the Journal. 

Neither House, during the Session of Congress, shall, without the 
Consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any 
other Place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting. 

Section. 6. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a Com- 
pensation for their Services, to be ascertained by Law, and paid out of 
the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all Cases, except 
Treason, Felony and Breach of the Peace, be privileged from Arrest 
during their Attendance at the Session of their respective Houses, and 
in going to and returning from the same; and for any Speech or 
Debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other 
Place. 

No Senator or Representative shall, during the Time for which he 
was elected, be appointed to any civil Office under the Authority of the 
United States, which shall have been created, or the Emoluments 
whereof shall have been encreased during such time; and no Person 
holding any Office under the United States, shall be a Member of 
either House during his Continuance in Office. 

Section. 7. All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the 
House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with 
Amendments as on other Bills. 

Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives 
and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the 
President of the United States; If he approve he shall sign it, but if 



xiv Appendix 

not he shall return it, with his Objections, to that House in which it 
shall have originated, who shall enter the Objections at large on their 
Journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such Reconsideration 
two thirds of that House shall agree to pass the Bill, it shall be sent, 
together with the Objections, to the other House, by which it shall like- 
wise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that House, it 
shall become a Law. But in all such Cases the Votes of both Houses 
shall be determined by yeas and Nays, and the Names of the Persons 
voting for and against the Bill shall be entered on the Journal of each 
House respectively. If any Bill shall not be returned by the President 
within ten Days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented 
to him, the same shall be a Law, in like Manner as if he had signed it, 
unless the Congress by their Adjournment prevent its Return, in which 
Case it shall not be a Law. 

Every Order, Resolution, or Vote to which the Concurrence of the 
Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a 
question of Adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the 
United States; and before the Same shall take Effect, shall be approved 
by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds 
of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the Rules 
and Limitations prescribed in the Case of a Bill. 

Section. 8. The Congress shall have Power To lay and collect 
Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide 
for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States; 
but all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the 
United States; 

To borrow Money on the credit of the United States; 

To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several 
Stales, and with the Indian Tribes; 

To establish an uniform Rule of Naturalization, and uniform Laws 
on the subject of Bankruptcies throughout the United States; 

To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and 
fix the Standard of Weights and Measures; 

To provide for the Punishment of counterfeiting the Securities and 
current Coin of the United States; 

To establish Post Offices and post Roads; 

To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for 
limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their 
respective Writings and Discoveries; 

To constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme Court; 

To define and punish Piracies and Eelonies committed on the high 
Seas, and Offences against the Law of Nations; 

To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal, and make 
Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water; 



Constitution of the United States xv 

To raise and support Armies, but no Appropriation of Money to that 
Use shall be for a longer Term than two Years; 
To provide and maintain a Navy; 
To make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land and 

naval Forces; 

To provide for calling forth the Militia to execute the Laws of the 
Union, suppress Insurrections and repel Invasions; 

To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the Militia, and 
for governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service of 
the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the Appointment 
of the Officers, and the Authority of training the Militia according to 
the discipline prescribed by Congress; 

To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over such 
District (not exceeding ten Miles square) as may, by Cession of partic- 
ular States, and the Acceptance of Congress, become the Seat of the 
Government of the United States, and to exercise like Authority over 
all riac'es purchased by the Consent of the Legislature of the State in 
which the same shall be, for the Erection of Forts, Magazines, Arse- 
nals, dock-Yards, and other needful Buildings; —And 

To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying 
into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Towers vested by 
this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any 
Department or Officer thereof. 

Section. 9. The Migration or Importation of such Persons as any 
of the Slates now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be pro- 
hibited by the Congress prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred 
and eight, but a Tax or duty may be imposed on such Importation, not 
exceeding ten dollars for each Person. 

The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, 
unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may 

require it. 

No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed. 

No Capitation, or other direct, Tax shall be laid, unless in Proportion 
to the Census or Enumeration herein before directed to be taken. 

No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Articles exported from any State. 

No Preference shall be given by any Regulation of Commerce or 
Revenue to the Ports of one State over those of another : nor shall 
Vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay 
Duties in another. 

No Money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in Consequence 
of Appropriations made by Law; and a regular Statement and Account 
of the Receipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be pub- 
lished from time to time. 

No Title of Nobility shall be granted by the United States : And no 



xvi Appendix 

Person holding any Office of Profit or Trust under them, shall, without 
the Consent of the Congress, accept of any present, Emolument, Office, 
or Title, of any kind whatever, from any King, Prince, or foreign State. 

Section, io. No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or 
Confederation; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal; coin Money; 
emit Bills of Credit; make any Thing but gold and silver Coin a 
Tender in Payment of Debts; pass any Bill of Attainder, ex post facto 
Law, or Law impairing the Obligation of Contracts, or grant any Title 
of Nobility. 

No State shall, without the Consent of the Congress, lay any Im- 
posts or Duties on Imports or Exports, except what may be absolutely 
necessary for executing its inspection Laws : and the net Produce of all 
Duties and Imposts, laid by any State on Imports or Exports, shall be 
for the Use of the Treasury of the United States; and all such Laws 
shall be subject to the Revision and Controul of the Congress. 

No State shall, without the Consent of Congress, lay any Duty of 
Tonnage, keep Troops, or Ships of War in time of Peace, enter into 
any Agreement or Compact with another State, or with a foreign 
Power, or engage in War, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent 
Danger as will not admit of delay. 

ARTICLE. II. 

Section, i. The executive Tower shall be vested in a President of 
the United States of America, lie shall hold his Office during the 
Term of four Years, and, together with the Vice President, chosen for 
the same Term, be elected, as follows 

Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature thereof 
may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole Number of Sena- 
tors and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the 
Congress: but no Senator or Representative, or Person holding an 
Office of Trust or Profit under the United States, shall be appointed 
an Elector. 

The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by Ballot 
for two Persons, of whom one at least shall not be an Inhabitant of the 
same State with themselves. And they shall make a List of all the Per- 
sons voted for, and of the Number of Votes for each; which List they 
shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the Seat of the Govern- 
ment of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. 
The President of the Senate shall, in the Presence of the Senate and 
House of Representatives, open all the Certificates, and the Votes 
shall then be counted. The Person having the greatest Number of 
Votes shall be the President, if such Number be a Majority of the 
whole Number of Electors appointed; and if there be more than one 



Constitution of the United States xvii 

who have such Majority, and have an equal Number of Votes, then the 
House of Representatives shall immediately chuse by Ballot one of 
them for President ; and if no Person have a Majority, then from the 
five highest on the List the said House shall in like Manner chuse the 
President. But in chusing the President, the Votes shall be taken by 
States, the Representation from each State having one Vote; A quorum 
for this Purpose shall consist of a Member or Members from two thirds 
of the States, and a Majority of all the States shall be necessary to a 
Choice. In every Case, after the Choice of the President, the Person 
having the greatest Number of Votes of the Electors shall be the Vice 
President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal 
Votes, the Senate shall chuse from them by Ballot the Vice President. 

The Congress may determine the Time of chusing the Electors, and 
the Day on which they shall give their Votes; which Day shall be the 
same throughout the United States. 

No Person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United 
States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible 
to the Office of President; neither shall any Person be eligible to that 
Office who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty five Years, and 
been fourteen Years a Resident within the United States, 

In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his Death, 
Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties of the said 
Office, the Same shall devolve on the Vice President, and the Congress 
may by Law provide for the Case of Removal, Death, Resignation or 
Inability, both of the President and Vice President, declaring what 
Officer shall then act as President, and such Officer shall act accordingly, 
until the Disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. 

The President shall, at stated Times, receive for his Services, a Com- 
pensation, which shall neither be encreased nor diminished during the 
Period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive 
within that Period any other Emolument from the United States, or 
any of them. 

Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the fol- 
lowing Oath or Affirmation : — 

" I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the 
Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my 
Ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United 
States." 

Section. 2. The President shall be Commander in Chief of the 
Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several 
States, when called into the actual Service of the United States; he may 
require the Opinion, in writing, of the principal Officer in each of the 
executive Departments, upon any Subject relating to the Duties of their 
respective Offices, and he shall have Power to grant Reprieves and 



xviii Appendix 

Pardons for Offences against the United States, except in Cases of 
Impeachment. 

He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the 
Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present 
concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent 
of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers and 
Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all other Officers of the 
United States, whose Appointments are not herein otherwise provided 
for, and which shall be established by Law : but the Congress may by 
Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as they think proper, 
in the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of 
Departments. 

The President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies that may 
happen during the Recess of the Senate, by granting Commissions 
which shall expire at the End of their next Session. 

Section. 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress Infor- 
mation of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Consideration 
such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on 
extraordinary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and 
in Case of Disagreement between them, with Respect to the Time of 
Adjournment, he may adjourn them to such Time as he shall think 
proper; he shall receive Ambassadors and other public Ministers; he 
shall take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed, and shall Commis- 
sion all the Officers of the United States. 

Section. 4. The President, Vice President and all civil Officers of 
the United States, shall be removed from Office on Impeachment for, 
and Conviction of, Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Mis- 
demeanors. 

ARTICLE III. 

Section, i. The judicial Power of the United States,, shall be 
vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Con- 
gress may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both 
of the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good 
Behaviour, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services, a Com- 
pensation, which shall not be diminished during their continuance in 
Office. 

Section. 2. The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law 
and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United 
States, and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Author- 
ity; — to all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and 
Consuls; — to all Cases of admiralty and maritime Jurisdiction; — to 
Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party; — to Contro- 
versies between two or more States; — between a State and Citizens 



Constitution of the United States xix 

of another State; — between Citizens of different States, — between 
Citizens of the same State claiming Lands under Grants of different 
States, and between a State, or the Citizens thereof, and foreign States, 
Citizens or Subjects. 

In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Con- 
suls, and those in which a State shall be Party, the supreme Court shall 
have original Jurisdiction. In all the other Cases before mentioned, 
the supreme Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both as - to Law 
and Fact, with such Exceptions, and under such regulations as the 
Congress shall make. 

The Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Impeachment, shall be 
by Jury; and such Trial shall be held in the State where the said Crimes 
shall have been committed; but when not committed within any State, 
the Trial shall be at such Place or Places as the Congress may by Law 
have directed. 

Section. 3. Treason against the United States, shall consist only 
in levying War against them, or in adhering to their Enemies, giving 
them Aid and Comfort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason unless 
on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or on Con- 
fession in open Court. 

The Congress shall have Power to declare the Punishment of Trea- 
son, but no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood, or 
Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted. 

ARTICLE. IV. 

Section, i. Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each State to 
the public Acts, Records, and judicial Proceedings of every other State. 
And the Congress may by general Laws prescribe the Manner in which 
such Acts, Records and Proceedings shall be proved, and the Effect 
thereof. 

Section. 2. The Citizens of each State shall be entitled to all 
Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the several States. 

A Person charged in any State with Treason, Felony, or other 
Crime, who shall flee from Justice, and be found in another State, shall 
on Demand of the executive Authority of the State from which he fled, 
be delivered up, to be removed to the State having Jurisdiction of the 
Crime. 

No Person held to Service or Labour in one State, under the Laws 
thereof, escaping into another, shall, in Consequence of any Law or 
Regulation therein, be discharged from such Service or Labour, but 
shall be delivered up on Claim of the Party to whom such Service or 
Labour may be due. 

Section. 3. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this 



xx Appendix 

Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the Juris- 
diction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the Junction 
of two or more States, or Parts of States, without the Consent of the 
Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress. 

The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful 
Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property 
belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall 
be so construed as to Prejudice any Claims of the United States, or of 
any particular State. 

Section. 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State in 
this Union a Republican Form of Government, and shall protect each 
of them against Invasion; and on Application of the Legislature, or of 
the Executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened) against 
domestic Violence. 

ARTICLE. V. 

The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall deem it 
necessary, shall propose Amendments to this Constitution, or, on the 
Application of the Legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall 
call a Convention for proposing Amendments, which, in either Case, 
shall be valid to all Intents and Purposes, as Part of this Constitution, 
when ratified by the Legislatures of three fourths of the several Stales, 
or by Conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other 
Mode of Ratification may be proposed by the Congress; Provided that 
no Amendment which may be made prior to the Year One thousand 
eight hundred and eight shall in any Manner affect the first and fourth 
Clauses in the Ninth Section of the first Article; and that no State, 
without its Consent, shall be deprived of its equal Suffrage in the 
Senate. 

ARTICLE. VI. 

All Debts contracted and Engagements entered into, before the 
Adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United 
States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation. 

This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall be 
made in Pursuance thereof ; and all Treaties made, or which shall 
be made, under the Authority of the United States, shall be the supreme 
Law of the Land; and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, 
any Thing in the Constitution or Laws of any State to the Contrary 
notwithstanding. 

The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the Mem- 
bers of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial 
Officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be 



Constitution of the United States xxi 

bound by Oath or Affirmation, to support this Constitution ; but no 
religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or 
public Trust under the United States. 



ARTICLE. VII. 

The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient 
for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratify- 
ing the Same. 

THE AMENDMENTS. 



Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, 
or prohibiting the free exercise thereof ; or abridging the freedom of 
speech, or of the press ; or the right of the people peaceably to 
assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances. 



II. 

A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a fee 
State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be 
infringed. 



No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, with- 
out the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to 
be prescribed by law. 

IV. 

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, 
and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be 
violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, sup- 
ported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to 
be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. 



V. 

No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infa- 
mous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, 
except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia,' 
when in actual service in time of War or public clanger; nor shall any 
person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of 



xxii Appendix 

life or limb ; nor shall be compelled in any Criminal Case to be witness 
against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without 
due process of law ; nor shall private property be taken for public use, 
without just compensation. 

VI. 

In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a 
speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district 
wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have 
been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature 
and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses 
against him ; to have compulsory process for obtaining Witnesses in 
his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence. 



In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed 
twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact 
tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the 
United States, than according to the rules of the common law. 



Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, 
nor cruel and unusual punishments indicted. 

IX. 

The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be 
construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. 

X. 

The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, 
nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respec- 
tively, or to the people. 

XI. 

The Judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to 
extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against 
one of the United States by Citizens of another State, or by Citizens or 
Subjects of any Foreign State. 

XII. 

The Electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot 
for President and Vice President, one of whom, at least, shall not be 
an inhabitant of the same state with themselves ; they shall name in 
their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots 



Constitution of the United States xxiii 

the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct 
lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for 
as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists 
they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the 
government of the United States, directed to the President of the 
Senate; — The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of 
the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates 
and the votes shall then be counted ; — The person having the greatest 
number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number 
be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed ; and if no 
person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest 
numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, 
the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the 
President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by 
states, the representation from each state having one vote ; a quorum 
for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds 
of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a 
choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a Presi- 
dent whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the 
fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act 
as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional dis- 
ability of the President. The person having the greatest number of 
votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number be 
a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed, and if no person 
have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the 
Senate shall choose the Vice-President ; a quorum for the purpose 
shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a 
majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no 
person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be 
eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. 



Section i. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a 
punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly con- 
victed, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to 
their jurisdiction. 

Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by 
appropriate legislation. 



Section i. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, 
and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States 
and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce 



xxiv Appendix 

any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens 
of the United States : nor shall any State deprive any person of life, 
liberty, or property, without due process of law ; nor deny to any 
person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. 

Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several 
States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole num- 
ber of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when 
the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President 
and Vice-President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, 
the Executive and Judicial officers of a State, or the members of the 
Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such 
State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, 
or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other 
crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the pro- 
portion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole 
number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. 

Section 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in 
Congress, or elector of President and Vice President, or hold any office, 
civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, 
having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an 
officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or 
as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitu- 
tion of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion 
against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But 
Congress may by a vote of two-thirds of each House, remove such 
disability. 

Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, 
authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions 
and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall 
not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall 
assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or 
rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emanci- 
pation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be 
held illegal and void. 

Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appro- 
priate legislation, the provisions of this article. 



XV. 

Section i. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall 
not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on 
account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 

Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article 
by appropriate legislation. 



Area and Population 



xxv 



AREA AND POPULATION OF THE STATES AND 
TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES, NOT 
INCLUDING ALASKA, ETC. 









Date of Area in Square 


Population, 


Mate Admission 


Miles 


1900 


Alabama . . „ . 1819 


52,250 


1,828,697 


Arizona 




Territory 


113,020 


122,931 


Arkansas 






1836 


53,850 


i,3 II ,5 6 4 


California 






1850 


158,360 


1,485,053 


Colorado 






1876 


io3,9 2 5 


539,7oo 


Connecticut . 






O* 


4,990 


908,355 


Delaware 






O 


2,050 


i84,735 


District of Columbi 


1 




. . . 


70 


278,718 


Florida . 






1845 


58,680 


5 2 8,542 


Georgia 









59,475 


2,216,331 


Idaho 






1890 


84,800 


161,772 


Illinois . 






1818 


56,650 


4,821,550 


Indiana 






1816 


3 6 ,35o 


2,516,462 


Indian Territory 






Territory 


31,400 


391,960 


Iowa 






-1845 


56,025 


2,231,853 


Kansas . 






1861 


82,080 


1,470,495 


Kentucky 






1792 


40,400 


2,147,174 


Louisiana 






1812 


48,720 


1,381,625 


Maine . 






1820 


33,o4o 


694,466 


Maryland 









12,210 


1,190,050 


Massachusetts 






O 


8,3i5 


2,805,346 


Michigan 






1837 


58,915 


2,420,982 


Minnesota 






1858 


83,365 


i,75i,394 


Mississippi 






1817 


46,810 


i,55 I > 2 7o 


Missouri 






1821 


69,415 


3,106,665 


Montana 






1889 


146,080 


243,329 


Nebraska 






1867 


77,5 IQ 


1,068,539 


Nevada 






1864 


1 10,700 


42,335 


New Hampshire 






O 


9,305 


411,588 


New Jersey . 






O 


7,8i5 


1,883,669 


New Mexico 






Territory 


122,580 


195,3™ 



* O means original state. 



XXVI 



Appendix 



STATES AND TERRITORIES— Continued 



State 






Date of 


Area in Square 


Population, 




Admission 


Miles 


1900 


New York 


o 


49,170 


7,268,012 


North Carolina 






o 


52,250 


1,893,810 


North Dakota 






1889 


70,795 


319,146 


Ohio . 






1802 


41,060 


4,157,545 


Oklahoma 






Territory 


39,°3° 


398,245 


Oregon 






1859 


96,030 


413,536 


Pennsylvania 






O 


45, 215 


6,302,115 


Rhode Island 









1,250 


428,556 


South Carolina 









3°>5 7o 


1, 340,3! 6 


South Dakota 






1889 


77,650 


401,570 


Tennessee 






1796 


42,050 


2,020,616 


Texas 






1845 


265,780 


3,048,710 


Utah . 






1894 


84,970 


276,749 


Vermont 






1791 


9,565 


343,641 


Virginia 






, O 


42,450 


1,854,184. 


Washington . 






1S89 


69.180 


5 l8 ,io 3 


West Virginia 






1863 


24,780 


958,800 


Wisconsin 






1848 


56,040 


2,069,042 


Wyoming 






1890 


97,890 


92,53! 


Possessions of 


THE UNITE! 


» States 




Name 


Date* 


Area 


Population 


Alaska .... 


I9OO 


590,884 


63,592 


Guam . 


. 


18S7 


ISO 


8,561 


Hawaii . 


. 


I9OO 


4,2IO 


46,843 


Hawaiian Islands 


. 


I9OO 


6,449 


154,001 


Luzon . 


. 


1887 


40,024 


3,442,941 


Philippine Islands 


. 


I9OO 


H4,356 


f8,ooo,ooo 


Porto Rico 


. 


1899 


3,606 


953,243 


Tutuila . 




189I 


55 


3,75o 


United States (not includin 


y 

3 






Alaska, etc.) 


I9OO 


3,025,600 


76,085,794 


United States (including Alasks 


, 






Philippine Islands, etc.) 


I9OO 


3,74i,o74 


85,268,941 


* Year of 


Census 


or Es 


imate. 


+ Estimatec 


L. 



INDEX 



Abercrombie, General, 115. 

Abolitionists, the, 476-479, 483. 

Acadia, gS, 99, 107. 

Adams, John, lawyer, 150; defends English 
soldiers, 258; in First Continental Congress, 
266; elected Vice President, 351; as Presi- 
dent, 365-367, 399; portrait, 366; leading 
Federalist, 404; of Boston aristocracy, 444. 

Adams, John Qnincy, connection with Monroe 
Doctrine, 391; fourth Republican President, 
406-407; of Boston aristocracy, 444; por- 
trait, 450; elected President, 451 ; in House 
of Representatives, 478-479. 

Adams, Samuel, part in Boston Tea Party, 
260; in First Continental Congress, 266; 
connection with Committees of Corre- 
spondence, 267; portrait, 267; favors 
independence, 269; delegate to Second 
Continental Congress, 270-271. 

Agriculture, in early New England, 136-137; 
in middle colonies, 140-141 ; period 1783 lo 
1828, 421-422; period 1828 to i860, 500; 
since Civil War, 611 612. 

Alabama. 413, 532, 555. 

" Alabama Claims," 601. 

Alabama, the, 567. 

Alaska, 600. 

Albany, 80, 82, 300. 

Albany Congress, 112. 

Albemarle, Duke of, 47. 

Alexander, chief of Wampanoag Indians, 69. 

Algonquin Indians, 24, 101-102. 

Alien and Sedition Acts, 368-370. 

Altamaha settlement, 49. 

Amboy, 295. 

America, conditions favorable to discovery of, 
2-8; discovery, 9-11; origin of name, ig. 

American Civil War, the, 523-575; causes, 
488 490; results, 511; resources of the two 
sections, 525-52S; early conflicts, 535-537; 
military plans and preparations, 538-539; 
eastern campaign (1862), 531-533; (1863), 
546-548; western campaign (1S62), 548-556; 
(1863), 556-559; campaign of 1864-1865, 
560, 561-565; end of war, 564-565; Federal 
navy, 566: Federal commerce, 566; work 
of the navy, 553-554. 565-569 '• results, 570. 

American institutions, origin of, 233 245. 



American navy in Revolution, 306; in War 
of 1812, 376 377, 379-380, 381, 383, 385- 
386; in Civil War, 553-554, 565-569- 

American neutrality in European affairs, 362, 
606. 

American Revolution, the, causes, 248-262; 
beginnings, 262-287; British abandon New 
England and Virginia, 287-28S: campaign 
against middle states, 288-309; war on the 
sea, 306; southern campaign, 309 316; 
final campaign: surrender of Cornwallis, 
316-319; Treaty of Paris, 319-320; effect 
on France, 359-360. 

Amherst, General, 115. 

Amnesty Proclamation, 579. 

Ancient civilization, 2-3. 

Ancient ideas concerning the world, 2-5. 

Anderson, Major, 535-536. 

Andre, Major, 308-309. 

Andros, Sir Edmund, 74-76. 

Angles, 236. 

Annapolis, 332, 334. 

Antietam, battle of, 543-544. 

Anti-Federalist Party, 348, 367, 405-408. 

Apache Indians, 24. 

Appalachian Mountains as barrier between 
English and French settlements, 104-105. 

Appomattox, 564. 

Aquednok, 57. 

Arbitration, 601-604. 

Aristotle, 3. 

Arizona, 471. 

Arkansas, 472, 536, 557, 579. 

Arkwright, 419. 

Arnold, General Benedict, 296, 297,300-302, 
304, 308 309, 312. 

Arthur, Chester A., 590, 591. 

Articles of Confederation, 326-327, 337, 338 
341. 

Atlanta, 461, 462. 

Atlantic Cable. See Cable. 

Augusta, Ga., 49. 

Australian ballot system, 588, 589. 

Aztecs, 26. 

Bacon's Rebellion, 43-44. 
Bahama Islands discovered, 10. 
Balboa, n, 12. 



XXV111 



Index 



Baltimore, 496, 503. 

Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, 495. 

Baltimore, Lord, 44-46, 198. 

Baptists, 47. 

Baton Rouge, 554. 

Bear Flag Republic, the, 474. 

Beauregard, General, 535. 

Beecher, Henry Ward, 621. 

Bell, John, 487. 

Bemis Heights, 302. 

Bennington, battle of, 301. 

Berkeley, Sir William, 42-44, 47, 83, 84, 
213. 

Bland Silver Bill, the, 595. 

Blockade, 375, 565-566. 

Block Island, 65, 66. 

Boleyn, Anne, 50. 

Booth, John Wilkes, 579-580. 

Boquet, General, 116. 

Boscawen, Admiral, 115. 

Boston, commercial importance, 142 ; during 
Revolution, 178; Stamp Act riots, 254; 
occupied by British troops, 267-268 ; siege 
of, 273, 276-277 ; evacuation by British, 
277-278 ; high schools established, 431. 

Boston Massacre, 257-258. 

Boston Port Bill, 261, 265, 268, 285. 

Boston Tea Party, 259-260. 

Braddock's defeat, 111-113. 

Bradstreet, General, 115. 

Bragg, General, 554-555, 558. 

Brandywine, battle of the, 299. 

Branford, 56. 

Brazil, 390. 

Breckenridge, John C., 487. 

Breed's Hill, 275. 

Brooks, Lord, 55. 

Brown College, 219. 

Brown, General, 383. 

Bryant, William Cullen, 431, 511. 

Buchanan, James, 451, 534. 

Buckner, General, 552. 

Buell, General, 554-555. 

Bull Run, battle of, 537-538 ; second battle, 
543- 

Bunker Hill, 287 ; battle of, 274-276. 

Bureau of Education, the National, 622. 

Burgoyne, General, 274, 285, 298, 299-302. 

Burke, Edmund, 285. 

Burnside, General, 448, 449, 544, 559. 

Butler, General Benjamin F., 553. 

Cabinet, the, 342-343. 
Cable, the Atlantic, 497, 609. 
Cabots, the, 14. 
Cadwalader, Dr., 148. 
Cairo, 111., 550, 555. 



Calhoun, John C, 378, 401, 456, 457. 

California, 97, 181, 189, 466, 471, 473, 474, 480, 
481-482; in 1861,617. 

Calvert, George, 44. 

Calverts, the, 86. 

Cambridge, Mass., 55, 218. 

Camden, battle of, 312. 

Canada, early exploration and settlement, 
98-99; in the Revolutian, 295-296; in War 
of 1812, 380-381; 383. 

Canals, 492. 

Canonchet, 70. 

Cape 'Breton Island, 107. 

Cape Fear River settlements, 47. 

Carleton, General, 296, 297. 

" Carpetbaggers," 587. 

Carteret, Sir George, 83, 84. 

Cartier, 16-18, 19, 97-98. 

Cartwright, 419. 

Catholic church, the, 40-41, 51. 

Catholics, the, 44, 206-207; ' n Maryland, 44, 
46 ; in the Carolinas, 47 ; in the Georgia col- 
ony, 50. 

Cayuga Indians, 102. 

Central America, n, 97. 

Champlain, 16, 18, 101-103. 

Chancellorsville, battle of, 546. 

Charles I, struggle against English people — 
execution, 41, 54, 61, 72, 237, 242; grants 
Massachusetts Bay Company's charter, 59; 
has charter annulled, 71, 72; grants Mary- 
land charter, 44, 198. 

Charles II, grants the Carolinas, 46-47; makes 
New Hampshire a royal province, 58; be- 
comes king, 72; action against Massachu- 
setts and New Hampshire, 72-74, 76; death, 
74; seizes New Netherland, 81-82; grants 
charier to Penn, 85-86, 198. 

Charlestown, Mass., 55, 275, 276. 

Charleston, S.C., founded, 47; about time of 
Revolution, 132, 133; commercial and social 
center, 133, 134, 157, 166; tea landed (1773), 
259; Moultrie's defense, 311; captured by 
British, 311. 

Charlotte, N.C., 313. 

Chattanooga, 555, 558. 

Cherokees, 26. 

Chesapeake and Leopard, fight between, 
375-376. 

Chesapeake Bay, 298, 317, 383. 

Chicago, 614. 

Chickamauga, battle of, 558. 

Chickasaws, 26. 

Chippewa, battle of, 283. 

Chippewas, 26. 

Choctaws, 26. 

Church and state, 146-148, 209. 



Index 



xxix 



Church of England, see Episcopal church, the. 

Cities: in southern colonies, 135; period 
1828-1860,502; period 1828-1860, 505; since 
Civil War, 614. 

Civil Service Laws, 447, 588-590. 

Civil War, see American Civil War, the. 

Claiborne, William, 46. 

Clarendon, Earl of, 47. 

Clark, George Rogers, 306. 

Clay, Henry, 378, 452, 481-482. 

Clermont, the, 424. 

Cleveland, Grover, 590, 591, 602. 

Climate, see Physical conditions. 

Clinton, General, 274, 302, 308, 309-311, 317. 

Clinton, Governor, 349. 

Coal, 499. 

Coal strike, 603. 

Colombia, 607. 

Colonial Committees of Correspondence, 264- 
267. 

Colonial legislatures, 243-244, 250. 

Colorado, 471. 

Columbia River, the, 365. 

Columbia, S.C., 562. 

Columbia University, 222. 

Columbus, Christopher, 8-n. 

Commerce and transportation, 1783-1828, 
422-426. 

Commerce, New England, 139; middle 
colonies, 142 143; period 1783-1828, 422- 
423; period 1828-1860,501-502; since Civil 
War, 613-614. 

Commercial industries, southern colonies, 
130-136; New England, 136-140; middle 
colonies, 140-144; during critical period, 
330; period 1783-1828, 358-359, 418-423; 
period 1828-1860,491-492; since Civil War, 
597"59 8 > 611-618. 

" Common Sense," 281. 

Compromise of 1850, the, 453, 481-482. 

" Concessions,'' the, 84. 

Concord, battle of, 271, 273. 

Confederate States of America, the, attack on 
Fort Sumter, 525-526; population, 526; 
resources (1861), 526-528: organized, 532; 
capital removed to Richmond, 536; territory 
lost in western campaign (1862), 555; ports 
blockaded, 565-566; war on Federal com- 
merce, 567-568. 

Congregational church, the, 147, 206. 

Congress, powers and duties of, 341-342. 

Connecticut, founded, 55; New Haven, 55-56, 
76; government, 61, 75-76, 77, 197-200,203; 
joins New England Confederacy, 62 ; agri- 
culture, 137; education, 218; territorial 
claims, 261, 327, 331; denies suffrage to 
negroes, 587. 



Constitution, the, 386. 

Constitution of the United States, framing, 
334-34°; principal features, 341-347; ratifi- 
cation, 348-349; goes into effect, 349-351; 
and secession, 529-530; Thirteenth Amend- 
ment, 582; Fourteenth Amendment, 584- 
585; Fifteenth Amendment, 585-586, 587. 

Constitutional Convention, the, 334-340, 347, 
. 348. 

Continental Congress, the, first, 266-267; 
second, 325-327. 

Conway Cabal, 303. 

Cooper, James Fenimore, 431, 511. 

Corinth, Miss., 552, 553. 

Cornwallis, Lord, 293-295, 311, 313, 314, 315- 
3*9- 

Corporations and trusts, 597-599. 

Cotton gin, the, 133, 420, 421, 422, 475, 476. 

Council for New England, see Plymouth 
Company. 

County, the, as a political unit, 181-183, J 84- 
191. 

Cowpens, battle of, 315. 

Creeks, 26, 28. 

Critical period, the, 325-353. 

Crompton, 419. 

Cromwell, Oliver, 41, 42, 46, 72. 

Crown Point, 112, 113, 273. 

Cuba, 10, 604, 605. 

Cumberland River, 552. 

Cumberland Road, 412. 

Currency, 329, 460-463, 526-528, 593-596. 

Dale, Sir Thomas, 38, 39, 40. 

Dartmouth College, 219. 

Davis, Jefferson, 532, 533. 

Dearborn, General, 380. 

Declaration of Independence, 278-284. 

Declaratory Act, the, 255. 

" Decrees " of Napoleon, 375. 

Delaware, government, 44, 86, 88, 197, 198, 
199-200, 448 ; settlement and history, 84- 
85 ; population, 87, 174, 175 ; physical con- 
ditions, 129 ; dress and amusements, 177 ; 
slavery, 475, 544. 

Delaware, Lord, 38. 

Delaware River, 80, 293, 294. 

Democratic party, the, organized, 407 ; period 
1828-1860, 451-452, 458, 469, 486, 487 ; since 
Civil War, 591-592. 

De Soto, 11, 14. 

Detroit, 380-381. 

Dewey, Admiral George, 604. 

Dinwiddie, Governor, no, in. 

Discoveries and explorations : Spanish, 8- 
14 ; English, 14-16 ; French, 16-19 : Portu- 
guese, 19 ; Dutchj 19. 



XXX 



Index 



District, the, as a political division, 185-186. 

District of Columbia, 481, 482, 546. 

Dixon, Jeremiah, 86. 

Douglas, Stephen A., 483, 486-487. 

Dover, 57. 

Drake, Sir Francis, 14, 15-16, 22. 

Dred Scott Decision, 484-487. 

Dudley, Governor, 74. 

Dutch, the, 79-81; 83 -85, 175-176. 

Dutch East India Company. 78. 

Dutch Reformed Church, 146-147. 

Dutch West India Company, 79. 

Early, General Jubal A., 563. 

East India Company, 258-259. 

Education, New England colonies, 170, 214- 
219 ; colonies, 208-222; southern colonies, 
210, 211-214 ; England, an; middle colo- 
nies. 219-222; period 1783-1828, 430 431; 
period 1828 i860, 509-511; since Civil 
War, 619-623. 

Edwards, Jonathan, 145. 

Effingham, Lord, 22. 

El Caney, 605. 

Electricity, 608-610. 

Elliott, Dr., 68. 

Emancipation Proclamation, the, 544-545. 

Embargo Act, 377, 387 388, 407, 420. 

Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 511. 

Endicott, John, 54, 66. 

Enforcement Act, 377, 388, 407. 

English and Indians, relations between, 64-70, 
101-104 

English Civil War, 242. 

English Revolution of 1688, 76. 

English settlements, 99-101, 104, 105. 

English struggle for liberty, the, 236-243. 

English territorial grants in North America, 
21. 

Episcopal church, becomes English state 
church, 40-41, 51-52; conditions, 4S; Vir- 
ginia, 58,186,206207; Massachusetts, 72- 
74; southern colonies, 147 148, 212 ; New 
York, 222. 

" Era of Good Feeling," 406. 

Ericsson, John, 568. 

Erie Canal, 412, 425. 

Established church, see Episcopal church, 
the. 

Europe, conditions at time of Columbus, 3, 6; 
geographical speculation in fifteenth cen- 
tury, 5; early trade with Asia, 6-8; con- 
ditions (1803-1815), 374. 

European claims in New World, 19-21. 

European interference with United States, 
period of, 356-392, 415-416. 

Eutaw Springs, battle of, 316. 



Exeter, N.H., 57. 

" Exposition and Protest " of South Carolina., 
the, 455-457- 

Faneuil Hall, 184. 

Farragut, Admiral, 553-554. 

" Federalist, The," 348-349, 416, 444. 

Federalist party, the, origin of name, 348; 
first administration, 367; Alien and Sedi- 
tion Acts, 368-369; opposed to War of 1812, 
380; origin and rise, 404-405; downfall, 451. 

Federalists, 348, 380, 443. 

Ferguson, Colonel, 314. 

Fillmore, Millard, 452-453. 

Financial conditions, 393-402; during the 
critical period, 330; period 1783-1828, 393- 
402; period 1828-1861, 454-463; during 
Civil War, 593. 

Fisheries. 99, 101, 138-139. 

Five Nations, the, 26, 102, 104; see also 
Iroquois. 

Florida, discovery and exploration, n-12; 
invaded by Oglethorpe, 50; settlement, 
97; purchase, 389, 416, 464, 472; becomes 
a state, 472; secedes, 532. 

Florida, the, 567. 

Foote, Commodore, 550, 552. 

Forbes, General, 116. 

Foreign relations, since Civil War, 600-607. 

Fort Donelson, 550-552. 

Fort Duquesne, 110-112, 115-116. 

Fort Edward, 300. 

Fort Erie, 383. 

Fort Frontcnac, 115. 

Fort Henry, 550-552. 

Fort Lee, 290, 292, 293. 

Fort Moultrie, 311. 

Fort Necessity, in. 

Fort Niagara, 116. 

Fort Orange (Albany), 80. 

Fort Pitt, 116. 

Fort Stanwix, 300. 

Fort Sumter, 535-536. 

Fort Ticonderoga, 112, 113, 115, 116, 273, 277, 
297, 298, 300. 

Fort Washington, 290, 291, 292, 295. 

Fort William Henry, 114. 

Fox, Charles James, 285, 319. 

France, struggle for North America, 106-119; 
aids Americans in Revolution, 287, 303, 304; 
acknowledges American independence, 304; 
French Revolution, 359-360, 374; war with 
England, 360-361; trouble with United 
States, 364-367, 374-375, 377; acquires 
Louisiana, 371-372; sells Louisiana to 
LTnited States, 374. 

Franklin, Benjamin, 89, 112, 220-222, 335, 340. 



Index 



xxxi 



Frederick the Great, 108, 2S3, 305. 

Fredericksburg, battle of, 544. 

Freedman, laws for regulation of the, 582- 

584. 
Freedmen's Bureau, the, 584. 
Freeman's Farm, battle of, 302, 309. 
Fremont, General John C, 474. 
French, the, in North America, explorations 

and settlements, 97-101; relations with 

Indians, ior-104; general policy, 104-105; 

early conflicts with English, 106-107; 

French and Indian War, 108-118. 
French and Indian War, the, 108 119, 249. 
French and Indians, relations between, 101- 

104. 
French Empire in Mexico, the, 601. 
French explorations and settlements, 47, 97- 

101. 
French Revolution, the, 360, 390. 
Fry, Colonel, in. 
Fugitive slave laws, 481-4S3. 
Fulton, Robert, 424. 
Fur trade, the, 99-101, no, 143. 

Gadsden Purchase, 471-472. 

" Gag Resolutions," the, 478-479. 

Gage, General, 267-271, 274, 275. 

Gallatin, Albert, 398-399. 

Garfield, James A., 591. 

Garrison, William Lloyd, 477. 

Gaspee, affair of the, 263, 264. 

Gates, General, 301-303, 309, 312. 

General warrants, 239, 240, 252. 

Genet, Citizen, 361, 365. 

Geneva award, 567. 

Genoa, 6. 

George III, 248-250, 279-283. 

Georgia, origin and growth, 48-50; govern- 
ment, 50, 187, 196; agricultural products, 
132, 133; slavery, 156-158, 339; education, 
213; in the Revolution, 288, 303,309-311; 
importation of slaves, 339; secedes, 532; 
reconstruction, 585. 

Germans, 47, 50, 175. 

Germantown, 299. 

Gerry, Elbridge, 365. 

Gettysburg, battle of, 546-548. 

Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 14, 16. 

Gold, discovery of, in California, 474. 

Gorges, Sir Ferdinand, 57, 58, 71, 73. 

Gorton, Samuel, 57. 

Government, early New England, 58-64; 
local, 179-191; state, 191-195, 202-203; 
colonial, 195-203; national, 201-203; 
English and American, 234-236; of colonies, 
280-281; during Revolution, 286; under 
Articles of Confederation, 325-327, 330-332; 



under Constitution, chief features, 341-347; 
of United States organized, 349-351 ; period 
1 783-1828, 428 429; state and local, 1828- 
1860, 506-509. 

Grant, General Ulysses S., on Mexican War, 
470 ; in eastern campaign, 541 ; character 
and ability, 548-549 ; Vicksburg campaign, 
556-557 '• placed in command in West, 55S- 
559 ; made lieutenant general, 560-561 ; 
campaign of 1864-1865, Appomattox, 561- 
565 ; presidential terms, 591. 

Grasse, Admiral, 316-317. 

Gray, Captain, 465. 

Great Meadows, in. 

Greeley, Horace, 620. 

Greene, General Nathanael, 292, 312-316. 

Gridley, Samuel, 150. 

Guam, 605. 

Guilford, Conn., 55. 

Guilford Court House, battle of, 315-316. 

Habeas corpus, right of, 238, 239-240, 243. 

Hague Tribunal, the, 602, 603-604. 

Hale, Nathan, 309. 

Halleck, General, 550, 553, 556. 

Hamilton, Alexander, part in making national 
constitution, 334, 335-336 ; fight for ratifi- 
cation, 348-349 ; Secretary of Treasury, 351 ; 
a Federalist leader, 367 ; portrait, 395 ; 
financial measures, 393-398. 

Hampton, 57. 

Hargreaves, 419. 

Harrison, Benjamin, 591, 595. 

Harrison, William Henry, 381-382, 452-453. 

Harrison's Landing, Va., 543. 

Hartford, 55. 

Hartford convention, 388-389, 408, 456. 

Harvard, John, 219. 

Harvard College, 171, 210,218-219. 

Hawaiian Islands, the, 606. 

Hawkins, Admiral, 22. 

Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 510, 511. 

Hayes, Rutherford B., 591, 594, 595. 

Hayne, Robert Y., 457. 

Hayti discovered, 10. 

Henry, Patrick, 150, 162, 254, 266. 

Henry VIII, 50-51. 

Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 511. 

Holy Alliance, the, 389-390, 391, 392. 

Honduras, 10. 

Hood, General, 561-562. 

Hooker, General, 546, 558. 

Hopkins, Judge, 266. 

House of Burgesses, the, first law-making 
body in America, 40. 

Howard, Admiral, 22. 

Howe, Admiral, 290. 



XXX11 



Index 



Howe, Elias, 498. 

Howe, General, in French and Indian War, 

"5- 
Howe, British General in the Revolution, 274, 

277, 278, 290-293, 297-299, 305. 
Hudson, Henry, discovers Hudson River, 19. 
Huguenots, the, 47, 175. 
Hull, General, 380-381. 
Hurons, 26, 101. 
Hutchinson, Anne, 57. 

Illinois, 327, 413. 

Immigration, 421, 491, 618, 619. 

Impressment, 363, 379. 

Incas, 26. 

Indented servants, 159-161, 169, 175. 

Independent Treasury System, 452, 463. 

India, 7, 10, 12-14. 

Indiana, 327, 413. 

Indians, 24-29, 64-70, 101-104. 

Industrial conditions, see Commercial indus- 
tries. 

Industrial life denned, 130. 

Institutional life, the five institutions of, 125- 
126. 

Institutions, American, see American institu- 
tions. 

Internal improvements, 411-413, 452. 

Interstate Commerce Act, 599. 

Intolerable acts, the, 260-262. 

Inventions and discoveries, 1783-1828, 233- 
234, 419; period 1828-1860, 358-359, 497- 
500; since Civil War, 608-611. 

Invincible Armada, the, see Spanish Armada. 

Iowa, 472. 

Irish, the, 175. 

Iroquois Indians, 24, 101-103, 106. 

Irving, Washington, 431, 511. 

Island No. 10, 552. 

Isthmian Canal, the, 606-607. 

Jackson, Andrew, spoils system, 357-358, 
446-447; portrait, 358; victory at New 
Orleans, 384-385; in Florida, 389; attacks 
United States Bank, 400, 458-460; election 
as President, 407-428, 449, 451 ; characteris- 
tics and principles, 444-446; on nullifica- 
tion, 457; Specie Circular, 461-462. 

Jackson, General Thomas J. (" Stonewall "), 
543, 546- _ 

Jackson, Miss., 557. 

James I, 36, 41, 52, 242. 

James II, 74, 76, 82, 83, 86. 

Jamestown, Va., 37-40, 44, 131, 136; see also 
Virginia. 

Jay, John, 266, 349, 363-364. 

Jay Treaty, the, 363-365. 



Jefferson, Thomas, lawyer, 150; Secretary 
of State, 351; a Republican leader, 367; 
author of Kentucky and Virginia Resolu- 
tions, 369, 370; negotiations with France, 
372-374; portrait, 373; financial policy, 
376-377, 398-399; elected President, 405, 
443; designer of University of Virginia, 
430; of Virginia aristocracy, 444; his state 
democracy, 445; exploration of Oregon, 
464; opposed to slavery, 475. 

John I, 240-241. 

Johnson, Andrew, becomes President, 581; 
reconstruction policy, 581-582; impeach- 
ment, 586; term, 591. 

Johnston, General Albert Sidney, 552-553. 

Johnston, General Joseph E., 557, 561. 

Joliet, 16, 18, 98. 

Jones, Paul, 306. 

Judges, election of, 507-509. 

Jutes, 236. 

Kansas, 483-486, 587. 

Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 452, 483-485. 

Kentucky, 411, 413, 544, 550, 554-555. 

Kentucky Resolutions, 369-370, 408, 456. 

King George's War, J06, 107. 

King Philip's War, 69-70. 

King William's War, 106. 

King's College, 222. 

King's Mountain, battle of, 314. 

Knox, General, 351. 

Knoxville, 558, 559. 

Labor organizations, 598, 599. 

Lafayette, 303-304, 305, 316, 317. 

Lake Champlain discovered, 18, 297, 383. 

Lake Huron discovered, 18. 

La Salle, 16, 18-19, 98 - 99- 

Law, profession of, 144-145, 149-150. 

Lee, General Charles, 291-294, 298, 305, 308, 
3 r 4. 

Lee, General Henry, 539. 

Lee, Richard Henry, 283. 

Lee, General Robert E., son of General 
Henry Lee, 308; sketch of, 539; portrait, 
540; defeats McClellan in first Richmond 
campaign, 543; eastern campaign (1862), 
541-544; close of eastern campaign (1863), 
546-548; results of eastern campaign, 
(1863), 559; final defense of Richmond, 
561-564; surrender at Appomattox, 564- 
565. 

Leisler, Jacob, 82. 

Leopard, the, 375-376. 

Lewis and Clark Expedition, 464-465. 

Lexington, battle of, 269-271, 273, 287. 

Liberator, The, 477. 



Index 



xxxm 



"Light-Horse Harry," see Lee, General 

Henry. 
Lincoln, Abraham, elected President, 454, 
487; on slavery, 487-488; portrait, 522; 
first inauguration, 534; policy defined, 543- 
535; first call for troops, 536; and McCIel- 
lan's Richmond campaign, 541; Eman- 
cipation Proclamation, 544-545: favors 
abolition of slavery, 546; orders relief of 
Chattanooga and Knoxville, 558; blockad- 
ing proclamation, 565-566; reconstruction 
policy, 578-579; assassination, 579-580; 
tributes, 580-581; character and rank, 581 ; 
terms, 591. 

Lincoln, General, 311. 

Lincoln-Douglas Debates, the, 486-487. 

Little Belt, the, 376. 

London Company, 36, 37, 38, 40, 41, 52. 

Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, 511. 

Long Island, 79, 290; battle of, 292, 312. 

Longstreet, General, 558, 559. 

Lookout Mountain, battle of, 558-559- 

Louis XIV, 99. 

Louisburg, 107, 115. 

Louisiana (state), 413, 532, 555, 557. 579- 

Louisiana (territory), exploration, 18-19; 
origin of name, 99; government, 189; 
under France, 371-37 2 , 464; bought by 
United States, 374, 4°7. 4'6, 47 2 : slavery, 
413-415, 466-467, 480, 482. 

Lovejoy, Owen, 478. 

Lowell, James Russell, 511. 

Lundy's Lane, battle of, 383. 

Luther, Martin, 51. 



Macdonough, Commodore, 383. 
Madison, James, connection with national 
Constitution, 335, 336, 348-349 • a Repub- 
lican leader, 367, 406; author of Virginia 
Resolutions, 369, 370; attitude toward War 
of 1812, 377-378, 379. 388, 399; of Virginia 
aristocracy, 444. 
Magellan, n, 12. 
Magna Charta, 240-241, 242. 
Maine, 57, 58, 71, 296, 415. 
Maine, the, 604. 
Manassas Junction, Va., 537. 
Manhattan Island, 79. 
Manila, 605. 
Mann, Horace, 510. 

Manufacturing, New England, 137-138: mid- 
dle colonies, 141-142; English opposition, 
142; period 1783-1828, 418-421; period 
1828-1860, 500-501; since Civil War, 611- 
613. 
" March to the Sea," Sherman's, 562. 
Marco Polo, 2. 



Marion, General, 311, 314- 
Marquette, 16, 18, 98. 
Marshall, John, 162, 344, 365. 
Maryland, agriculture, 40, 132, 134, 136, 157; 
origin and growth, 44-45: government, 45, 
46, 88, 187, 198, 199; religion, 46, 147, 206- 
207; winter climate, 129; plantations, 155; 
slavery, 156, 544; education, 214; and 
Articles of Confederation , 327 ; good roads 
convention, 333; invaded by British (1814), 
383 ; invaded by Lee, 543. 
Maskoki, 24-26. 
Mason, Captain John, 66-67. 
Mason, Charles, 86. 
Mason, George, 150, 163. 
Mason, General John, 163. 
Mason, John, 57, 71, 73- 
Mason and Dixon line, the, 86-87. 
Massachusetts, founding and growth, 53-55: 
religion, 56 57. 59. 146, 217; territory, 58, 
327; government, 59-60; 62, 71-77. I 4 6 , 
185, 197, 199. 217, 332; in New England 
Confederacy, 63-64: Indian troubles, 66; 
medical profession, 148; dress and amuse- 
ments, 172; education, 214-217; events 
leading to Revolution, 254, 257. 261, 262, 
264-265: for Declaration of Independence, 
283; for the Constitution, 348, 349'. Resolu- 
tions of 1809, 388. 
Massachusetts Bay Colony, see Massachu- 
setts. 
Massasoit, 65, 69. 
Maximilian, 601. 
Mayflower, the, 52. 

McClellan, General George B., 54i~543- 
McCormick, Cyrus, 498, 499. 
McKinley, William, 591 ; portrait, 596, 597. 
Meade, General George G., 546. 
Medicine, profession of, 144-145, 148-149. 
Memphis, 553. 
Merriinac, the, 568-569. 
Methodist Episcopal church, 509. 
Mexican War, the, 469-472. 
Mexico, 11, 97, 39°. 467-468, 474, 480; city 

of, 471. 
Michigan, 189, 327, 381, 413. 47 2 - 
Micolls, Richard, 82. 

Middle colonies, origin, growth, political his- 
tory, 78-89; physical characteristics, 129; 
commercial industries, 140-150; ministry, 
146-147; social conditions, 174-179: edu- 
cation, 219-223; British campaigns, 288- 



309. 
Middle states, the, manufacturing, 418-420; 

agriculture, 422. 
Milford, Conn., 55. 
Mining, 500 501, 611. 



XXXIV 



Index 



Ministry, the, New England, 145-146. 214- 
215, 217-218; middle colonies, 146-147; 
southern colonies, 147-148, 211-212. 

Minnesota, 472, 587. 

Missionary Ridge, battle of, 558-559. 

Mississippi, 413, 532, 555, 585, 586. 

Mississippi River, 14, 18, 370-371, 412, 423, 
55°, 553-557- 

Mississippi Valley, the, 14, 16-19, 411. 

Missouri, 413, 544, 555. 

Missouri Compromise, the, 414-415, 417, 466, 
482, 483. 

Mohawk Indians, 102. 

Mohegan Indians, 26,66. 

Money, see Currency. 

Monitor and Merrimac, the, 568-569. 

Monmouth, battle of, 304, 305. 

Monroe Doctrine, the, 362, 391-392, 601-602. 

Monroe, James, 367, 372, 391-392, 406, 444. 

Montcalm, General, 114 118. 

Montgomery, Ala.. 532. 

Montgomery, General, 296. 

Montreal, 98, 106, 116, 296, 300, 380. 

Morgan, General, expedition against Quebec, 
296; under Gates, 301; at Freeman's Farm, 
302; treatment by Congress. 308, 312; vic- 
tory at Cowpens, 314-315. 

Mormons, the, 509. 

Morristown, 295. 

Morse, Samuel F. B. , 496, 497. 

Moultrie, General, 311. 

Mount Vernon, Va., 332-333. 

Murfreesboro, battle of, 554-555. 

Napoleon, 367, 372-374, 377, 384, 389-390. 

Narragansett Indians, 26, 66, 69, 70. 

Nashville, 562. 

National bank system. 593-594. 

National-Republican party, 451. 

Naumkeag, 54. 

Navigation Acts, the, 251-253. 

Nebraska, 483. 

New Amsterdam, 79-81. 

New Brunswick, 294, 295. 

New England, origin and growth in popula- 
tion, 50-58, 62 ; relations with Indians, 64- 
70 ; government, 71-77, 183, 185, 189, 196 ; 
physical characteristics, 129 ; commercial 
industries, 136-140, 418-420 ; slavery in, 
144 ; ministry, 145-146, 147-149 ; medical 
profession, 148 ; education, 208, 210, 214- 
219 ; religion, 209 ; abandoned by English, 
287-288, 297 298 ; prominent leaders, 37S ; 
attitude toward Revolution, 380 ; opposi- 
tion to Embargo policy, 387-389 ; attitude 
toward tariff, 401-402 ; attitude toward 
abolitionists, 478. 



New England Company, see Plymouth 
Company. 

New England Confederacy, 62-64, 7 2 - 

Newfoundland, 99. 

New Hampshire, early history, 57-58 ; under 
royal governors. 71, 73, 74, 76, 77 ; educa- 
tion, 218 ; territory, 331, 332. 

New Haven, 55, 56, 61, 76, 146, 206, 209. 

New Jersey, under Andros, 76 ; grants to 
Englishmen, 82 ; origin and growth, 83-84 ; 
physical conditions, 129 ; in Revolution, 
288. 291, 293 295, 298 ; slavery, 475. 

New Jersey Plan, the, 337-338. 

New Mexico, 471, 481. 

New Netherland, 19, 73, 79-82; see also New 
York. 

New Orleans, 118, 370-372, J03, 553-554 ; bat- 
tle of, 384-385. 

Newport, 57. 

Newtown, 218. 

New York, captured by English, 73 ; govern- 
ment, 76, 188, 191, 446 ; origin, growth, 
political history, 7S-S3 ; Indians, 103 ; 
physical conditions, 129 ; manufacturing, 

141 ; fur trade, 143 ; slavery, 174. 475 ; 
people, 175, 178 ; territory, 175, 176, 331 ; 
events leading to Revolution, 256, 259, 283- 
284; in Revolution, 288, 296; and Ordi- 
nance of 1787, 327 ; ratifies national Con- 
stitution, 348, 349 ; invaded by British 
(1814), 383. 

New York City, important colonial center, 

142 ; social life, 178, 179 ; Stamp Act Con- 
gress, 254 ; captured by British, 288, 290- 
292, 295, 297 ; in the Revolution, 296-299, 
302 303, 305, 311 ; in 1905, 614. 

Nevada, 471. 

Niagara, 112, 113. 

Nicaragua, 607. 

Nipmuck Indians, 69. 

Non-Importation Agreements, 262. 

Non-Intercourse Act, 377. 

North, the, physical characteristics, 126 128 ; 
social conditions (1783 -1828), 428, 443 444 ; 
(1828-1860), 504-506; population (1828- 
1861), 466-467 ; antislavery feeling. 467; 
opposition to annexation of Texas, 468-469 ; 
opposition to Mexican War, 470 ; cities 
(1828-1860), 502-504; resources (1861), 
525-528 ; attitude toward secession, 530- 

53 2 - 
North Carolina, settlement, 16 ; as a colony, 
46-48; agriculture, 131, 132, 134, 422; 
slavery, 156 ; county government, 187; 
education, 213; British campaigns in Rev- 
olution, 288, 303, 309, 311, 3^-316 ; seces- 
sion, 536 ; in Civil War, 562, 565. 



Index 



xxxv 



North, Lord, 319. 

Northmen, the, 10-11. 

North Ministry, the, 248-249, 261. 

North (Hudson) River, 78. 

Northwest Territory, the, 327-329, 381, 382, 

Nova Scotia, 99, 107. 
Nueces River, the, 469, 470. 
Nullification, 45c 452, 456-458. 
Nyantic Indians, 66. 

Oglethorpe, James, 49, 50. 

Ohio, 327, 413, 587. 

Ohio Company, the, 108 -no. 

Ohio River, 99, 408, 423. 

Ohio Valley, 104, 105, 108-110, m. 

" Old Ironsides," 386. 

Old South Church, 429-430. 

Oldham, John, 66. 

Oneida Indians, ic2. 

Onondaga Indians, 102. 

Orders in Council. 375. 

Ordinance of 1787, 327-329, 410, 473. 

Oregon, 464-466, 469, 472-473, 617. 

Oswego, 114, 298, 300. 

Otis, James, 150, 252. 

Ottawas, 26. 

Pacific coast, outlet to, 464-466. 

Pacific Ocean, 12. 

Paine, Thomas, 281. 

Pakenham, General, 385. 

Panama Canal, the, 606-607, 618. 

Panic of 1837, 460 463. 

Paris, Treaty of, 319. 

Parish, the, as a political division, 185-186, 
189. 

Parkman, Francis, 51 r. 

Parliament, ascendency, 41; struggle with 
the Crown, 42, 72, 241-244, 248-253; No- 
Popery Act, 51; government of colonies, 
142, 201-202, 262-263; compared with Con- 
gress, 235. 

Patent office, 497. 

Patroons, 80. 

Paulus Hook, 295, 308. 

Pembcrton, General, 557. 

Penn, William, 84, 85-89, 198. 

Pennsylvania, territory, 44, 331; early history 
and growth, 85-89; physical conditions, 
129; industries, 141, 143, 419; learned pro- 
fessions, 145, 148, 149; people, 174-177; 
government, 183, 187-189, 191, 196-200; 
religion, 207; in Revolution, 288, 293; 
Whisky Rebellion, 397-398. 

Pensacola, 389. 

Peoples' party, 592. 



Pequod Indiana, 65-67, 69. 

Perry, Commodore, 381. 

Perryville, battle of, 554-555. 

Petersburg, 563. 

Petition of Right, 242. 

Philadelphia, founding and growth, 87; com- 
mercial importance, 142; medical profession, 
148; social life, 178-179; conditions just 
before Revolution, 259, 266, 273; in Revo- 
lution, 288, 291, 299, 302,305; Constitutional 
Convention, 334; in 1905, 614. 

Philippines, the, 604-606. 

Physical conditions and their effects, 126-128, 
410, 488-489. 

Pickens, General, 311, 314. 

Pierce, Franklin, 451, 483. 

Pilgrims, the, 52-53. 

Pitt, William, 114-115, 255, 285. 

Pittsburg, 116. 

Pittsburg Landing, battle of, 552-553. 

Plantations, 132-136, 155-158. 

Plattsburg, battle of, 383. 

Plymouth Colony, 52-54, 59-62, 65, 77, 146; 
see also Massachusetts. 

Plymouth Company, 36, 37, 52-54, 55. 

Poe, Edgar Allan, 509, 511. 

Political campaigns, 358; conventions, 358; 
platforms, 449-450. 

Political methods, period 1 828-1 860, 357-358, 
443-450; period 1783-1828, 368; since Civil 
War, 588-590. 

Political parties, period 1783 -1828, 367, 402- 
408; period 1828 -i860, 451-454; since Civil 
War, 391-592. 

Polk, James K., 469-470. 

Ponce de Leon, n-12. 

Pope, General, 543. 

Popular sovereignty, 483-484, 486. 

Population of United States, 408, 466, 472, 
523-526. 

Populist party, 592. 

Porter, Admiral, 556. 

Porto Rico, 605. 

Port Royal, 98. 

Portsmouth, N.H., 57. 

Portsmouth, R.I., 57. 

Portugal, 390. 

Potomac River, 333. 

Powhatan, 26. 

Presbyterian church, the, 147, 220, 222. 

Prescott, William H., 511. 

President, powers and duties of, 342-343. 

President and Little Belt, fight between, 376. 

Presidential electors, 447-449. 

Princeton, battle of, 294-295, 298. 

Princeton College, 222. 

Privacy, right of, 239, 240, 243. 



XXXVI 



Index 



Privateers, 386-387. 

Prohibition party, 592. 

Protection, see Tariff Question, the. 

Providence, 56, 57, 263. 

Pueblos, 26. 

Puget Sound, 618. 

Puritan church, 205, 207. 

Puritans, in Maryland, 46; name defined, 51; 
religion, 51, 58 59, 146; come to America, 
52; government, 58 59, 146; and Indians, 
67-68; dress and amusements, 172-173; see 
also New England. 

Putnam, General, 292. 

Quakers, the, in the Carolinas, 47; in New 
Jersey, 84; in Pennsylvania, 85, 87; and 
slavery, 143; religion, 146; social life, 178; 
in Massachusetts, 205-206. 

Quartering of soldiers, right of, 239, 240, 
243- 

Quebec, founded, 18, 98; in King William's 
War, 106; captured by English, 116-118; 
attack on (1775). 2 9 6 ; in Revolution, 
380. 

Queen Anne's War, 106, 107. 

Queenstown, 380. 

Quincy, Josiah, 258. 

Quincy, Samuel, 150. 

Race question, the, 586-587, 618-619. 
Railroads, 359, 426, 505, 526, 528, 608-610, 

616-617. 
Raleigh, Sir Walter, 14, 16, 36. 
Randolph, Edward, 73. 

Reaper, the, 359, 426, 498-499, 500, 611-612. 
Reconstruction Acts. 585. 
Reconstruction of Confederate states, 578- 

587. 
Religion, in England, 40-41 ; in the Carolinas, 

48; in the colonies, 203-210; in Europe, 

204,207; period 1783-1828, 429-430; period 

1828-1860, 509. 
Repressive Acts, the, 260-262. 
Republican party, 367-369, 405-408, 416, 444, 

451-454. 486, 487. 
Revere, Paul, 271. 

Revolution, see American Revolution. 
Rhode Island, 56, 57, 61-63, 73"77> 197-200, 

203, 207, 210, 335, 351. 
Richmond, 541-544, 562-563. 
Richmond, Duke of, 285. 
Right of deposit, the, 371-374. 
Right of discovery, the, 19-21. 
Right of search, the, 363, 364, 375. 
Rio Grande, 469, 471. 
Ripley, General, 383. 
Roads, 424-425, 492-493. 



Rockingham Ministry, the, 255. 

Roentgen ray, 611. 

Roosevelt, Theodore, 591, 603. 

Rosecrans, General, 555, 558. 

Ross, General, 383-384. 

Rotation in office, 447. 

Roxbury, 55. 

Rule of 1756, the, 362-363. 

Rum, 139. 

Russia, 390-392, 466. 

Rutledge, John, 266. 

Sacramento, 474. 

St. Augustine, 97. 

St. Lawrence River, 16-18, 98, 117. 

St. Leger, General, 300. 

St. Louis, 464, 503. 

St. Marks, 389. 

St. Mary's, Md., 45. 

Salem, 54. 

San Francisco, 616, 617, 618. 

San Juan, 605. 

Santa Fe, 97. 

Santiago, battle of, 605. 

Saratoga, 299, 302. 

Sassacus, 65. 

Savannah, 49, 288, 311, 562. 

Saxons, 236. 

Saye and Sele, Lord, 55. 

Schuyler, General, 300, 301, 308, 312. 

Scotch, the, 47, 50, 175. 

Scott, General Winfield, 383, 470-471. 

Secession, right of, 529-532. 

Second Continental Congress, 273-274, 278. 

Sedition Act, 368-370, 405. 

Seminoles, 26. 

Seneca Indians, 102. 

Separatists, 50-52. 

Seven Years" War, the, 108, 118. 

Seward, William H., 580. 

Sewing machine, the, 426, 497-498. 

Shaftesbury, Earl of, 47. 

Shawnees, 26. 

Shays's Rebellion, 331-332, 334. 

Shenandoah, the, 567. 

Sheppen, Dr., 148. 

Sheridan, General Philip H., 548, 550, 555, 

563, 564, 601. 
Sherman, Roger, 266. 
Sherman, General W. T., 548, 550, 556, 558- 

559. 561-562. 
Sherman Act, the, 595, 596. 
Shiloh, battle of, 552-553. 
Shipbuilding, 617-618. 
Shipping industry, the, 502, 567-568. 
Shirley, Governor, in. 
Six Nations, the, 106, 305-306. 



Index 



xxxvn 



Slavery, effect on, of physical conditions. 128- 
129, 134, 144; and plantations, 136; intro- 
duced into North America, 136; in New Eng- 
land, 139-140, 144, 169; in middle colonies, 
143-144, 174-175; in southern colonies, 
155-159, 477; and Ordinance of 1787, 328; 
period 1828-1860, 356-357, 452/ 466-469; 
period 1783-1828, 410, 413-417; and the 
churches, 509; relation to secession, 53r- 
532; Lincoln's attitude, 534; Emancipa- 
tion Proclamation, 544; abolition of, 545- 
546, 582. 

Smith, Captain John, 38. 

Social conditions, in the colonies, 150-153; 
in southern colonies, 152, 153-168; New 
England, 168-173; in middle colonies, 
174-179; period 1783-1828, 427-428; period 
1828-1860, 504-506; since Civil War, 618- 
619. 

Socialist party, 592. 

Soil, see Physical conditions. 

Sonoma, 474. 

Sothel, Governor, 48. 

South, the, physical characteristics, 126-129; 
ministry, 147-148; manual labor, 159; atti- 
tude toward tariff, 401-402, 454-458, 467; 
manufacturing, 419, 421 ; agriculture, 421- 
422; social conditions, 427-428, 504; cities, 
502-504; resources (1861), 525-528; seces- 
sion, 520-532; race question, 586-587, 618- 
619; the New South, 615-616. 

South America, ic, n, 97, 390. 

South Carolina, as a colony, 46-48; agricul- 
ture, 132, 133; ministry, 147; plantations, 
155; slavery, 155, 156, 339; government, 
183, 185-186, 188, 196, 448, 456-457, 507; 
education, 213; in revolution, 288, 303, 309- 
3ir, 312, 314, 316; secession, 532. 

Southern colonies, origin, growth, political 
history, 36-50; people, 58, 136; commer- 
cial industries, 130-136; education, 210, 
2ir-2i4; British campaigns, 288, 309-316. 

Southold, 56. 

South (Delaware) River, 80, 81, 86. 

South Sea, see Pacific Ocean. 

Spain, 21-23, 3°4. 3 IQ > 37 1 . 3 8 9> 4°6- 

Spanish-American colonies, 390-392, 467- 
468. 

Spanish-American War, the, 570, 604-606. 

Spanish Armada, 22-23, 97- 

Spanish settlements, 97. 

Specie circular, the, 461-462. 

Specie payments, resumption of, 594-595. 

Spoils system, the, 357-358, 446-447, 588- 

59°- 
Squatter sovereignty, 483, 486. 
Stamford, Conn., 55. 



Stamp Act, the, 253-255, 262. 
Stamp Act Congress, 253-254. 
Stanton, Edwin M., 586. 
Stark, General, 301, 308, 312. 
State Banks, 399 400, 460-463, 593. 
Staten Island, 290. 
Steamboat, the, 423-424, 425, 492. 
Stephens, Alexander H., 532. 
Steuben, Baron, 305. 
Stillwater, 300. 
Stony Point, 304, 306-307. 
Stuyvesant, Peter, 80, 81. 
Subtreasury System, 463. 
Sullivan, General, 294, 305-306. 
Sumter, General, 311, ^14. 
Supreme Court decisions, 416-417. 
Sutter's Fort, 474. 
Swedes, the, 80, 81, 85, 175. 

Tariff Question, the, period 1783-1828, 393- 

402 ; advantage to manufacturing, 420; tariff 

of 1846, 452 ; " Tariff of Abominations," 

454-458 ; since Civil War, 596-597. 
Tarleton, Colonel, 314, 315. 
Taxation, right of, 237, 239, 243, 249, 254. 
Taylor, General Zachary, 452-453, 469-470. 
Tea tax, the, 258 260. 
Tecumseh, 381-382. 
Telegraph, the, 359, 426, 493, 608-609. 
Tennessee, slavery, 413, 544 ; secession, 

536 ; in Civil War, 550, 554-555. 558-559 '• 

reconstruction, 579, 584, 585. 
Tennessee River, 550-552. 
Tenure of Office Act, 586. 
Territory of United States, 408, 464-466,472, 

605-606. 
Texas, 389, 452, 466-472, 53 2 > 557. 585. 586. 
Thames, battle of the, 381. 
Thomas, General George H., 548, 550, 555, 

558, 562. 
Thresher, the, 359, 426, 498-500, 611-612. 
Tippecanoe, 382. 
Tobacco, 130-132, 422, 488. 
Topography, climate, and soil, see Physical 

conditions. 
Tories, 285-286. 

Town, the, as a political division, 183. 
Town meeting, 183-184. 
Townshend Acts, the, 255-258. 
Township, the, as a political division, 181, 183, 

189, 190. 
Trade between Europe and Asia, 6-8. 
Transportation, 422-426, 491-493, 526, 608- 

609. 
Treaties, of 1783, 362-363; Ghent, 384, 387; 

of 1818, 465-466; of 1846, 466; Washington, 

600-601, 



XXXV111 



Index 



Trent affair, the, 600. 

Trenton, 293-295, 29S. 

Trial by jury, right of, 238-239, 240, 243. 

Trusts, 597-599- 

Turks, the, 7. 

Tuscarora Indians. 106. 

Tyler, John, 452-453, 468, 4^9- 

" Uncle Tom's Cabin," 482. 

Underground Railroad, the, 483. 

Underhill, John, 66. 

United Colonies of New England, 62-64. 

United States bank, 396-397, 4°3-4°4, 45*" 

452, 458-460. 
United States courts, 343-347- 
Utah, 471, 481. 

Valley Forge, 304-305. 

Van P.uren, Martin, 451, 463. 469. 

Van Rensselaer, General, 380 381. 

Vane, Governor, 66. 

Venezuelan arbitrations, 601-602. 

Venice, 6. 

Vermont, 331, 332. 

Vespucius. Americus, 19. 

Vice President, powers and duties of the, 342. 

Vicksburg, 555557- 

Virginia, origin and growth. 36-38; settlers, 
38-40; government, 39-44, l86 » l8 9> J 9 r > 
196; territory, 44, 327; climate, 129; agri- 
culture, 131-132, 422, 500; manufacturing, 
134; plantations, 136. i55'> learned profes- 
sions, 147-150; population, 153; slavery, 
155. 156, 157. 158, 339. 475. 477; great men, 
162-163; indented servants, 175; religion, 
206, 209; education, 213, 430; events lead- 
ing to Revolution, 254, 261, 263, 264; 
Declaration of Independence, 283; in Revo- 
lution, 287, 288, 316, 564, 565; ratification 
of Constitution, 348-349; secession, 536; 
reconstruction, 585, 586; see also James- 
town colony. 
Virginia, the, 568-569. 
Virginia Company, 36-37. 
Virginia Gazette, 167. 
Virginia plan, the, 337. 

Virginia Resolutions, 408, 369-370, 388, 389, 
456. 

Wampanoag Indians, 68, 69. 

War of 1812, the, 374-388, 401, 415-416, 419, 

420. 
War with Mexico, 452. 



Washington, D.C., 345, 3 8 3-3 8 4> 445, 49°- 
Washington, General George, ancestors, 43; 
in French and Indian War, no, in, 113, 
116 ; Virginian, 162, 444 ; in First Conti- 
nental Congress, 266 ; commander in chief 
of army, 273-274, 276, 286, 367 ; capture 
of Boston, 276-277 ; in middle states cam- 
paign (1776), 288-295, 298 ; connection with 
Burgoyne campaign, 298, 299 ; Conway 
Cabal, 303 ; Valley Forge and Monmouth, 
304-305 ; treatment of Arnold, 308-309 ; 
Yorktown campaign, 316-317; part in fram- 
ing national Constitution, 332-337, 340; 
portrait, 350; President, two terms, 351, 
393, 406; foreign policy, 361-365, 392; do- 
mestic policy, 368-369, 397-399 ; a leader of 
Federalist party, 404-406 ; esteemed by the 
people, 405 ; opposed to slavery, 475. 
Washington (territory), 473. 
Washington, William, 314. 
Watertown, 55, 60. 
Wayne, General Anthony, 306. 
Webster, Daniel, 378, 452, 457. 
West, the, settlement, 408-411, 416; new states, 
410-411; agriculture, 421, 422; manufac- 
tures, 422; social conditions, 428, 443-444; 
government, 429 ; period 1828-1861, 472- 
474 ; since Civil War, 616-618. 

West Indies, 9-11, 133, 139, 251, 316. 

West Jersey, 85. 

West Point, 292, 309. 

West Virginia, 536, 544. 

Whig party, the, 407, 452-453, 458, 469. 

Whisky Rebellion, the, 397-398. 

White Plains, 291, 293. 

Whitney, Eli, 420, 422. 

Whittier, John Greenleaf, 511. 

William and Mary College, 210, 214. 

Williams, Roger, 56. 

Wilmington, N.C., 316. 

Wilmot Proviso, 480. 

Wilson tariff bill, the, 59 6 "597- 

Wisconsin, 327, 413, 472, 587. 

Wolfe, General Charles, 115-118, 296. 

Writs of Assistance, 252. 

Wyoming Valley, 331. 

X-ray, the, 611. 

X, Y, Z Affair, the, 366. 

Yale College, 171, 210, 219. 

York, Duke of, 198. 

Yorktown, V a ., 316-319, 541, 543. 



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